Strengthening of a response through the introduction of a stimulus after the response occurs

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Terms in this set (71)

Learning

a relatively permanent change in behavior acquired through experience.

Classical Conditioning

the process of learning by which a previously neutral stimulus comes to elicit a response identical or similar to one that was originally elicited by another stimulus as the result of the pairing or association of the two stimuli.
-learning by association - you learn to connect or associate two stimuli

Ivan Pavlov

-Russian physiologist
-discovered classical conditioning
-studied digestive processes in dogs

Unconditioned response (UR)

an unlearned response to a stimulus
-dog salivating

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

a stimulus that elicits an unlearned response
-the dog's food

Neutral stimulus

a stimulus that before conditioning does not produce a particular response
-a tone produced by ringing a bell

Conditioned response (CR)

an acquired or learned response to a conditioned stimulus
-salivation to a tone

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

a previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after it has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus
-the tone

Extinction

the gradual weakening and eventual disappearance of a conditioned response.

Spontaneous recovery

the spontaneous return of a conditioned response following extinction

Reconditioning

the process of relearning a conditioned response following extinction

Stimulus generalization

the tendency for stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response

Stimulus Discrimination

the tendency to differentiate among stimuli so that stimuli that are related to the original conditioned stimulus, but not identical to it, fail to elicit a conditioned response

Stimulus characteristics that strengthen conditioned responses

1. Frequency of Pairings
2. Timing
3. Intensity of the US

Frequency of Pairings

the more often the CS is paired with the US, the stronger and more reliable the CR will be

Timing

the strongest CRs occur when the CS is presented first and remains present throughout the administration of the US.

Intensity of the US

A stronger US will typically lead to faster conditioning than a weak one.

Robert Rescorla

-cognitive perspective in explaining classical conditioning
-argued that conditioning depends on a cognitive factor--the informational value of a conditioned stimulus as a reliable signal for predicting the occurrence of the unconditioned response.

Watson and Rayner

-proved that a fear response could be acquired through through classical conditioning
-experiment with Little Albert and rat, banged hammer against steel bar to make Albert afraid when he saw the rat.

Conditioned emotional reaction (CER)

an emotional response to a particular stimulus acquired through classical conditioning

Phobias

excessive fears of particular objects or situations

Behavior therapy

a form of therapy that involves the systematic application of the principles of learning

Conditioned taste aversion

an aversion to a particular food or beverage acquired through classical conditioning
-John Garcia demonstrated that aversion to particular foods could be classically conditioned by giving rats a nausea-inducing drug soon after they ate the foods.

Immune system

the body's system of defense against disease
-Robert Ader and Nicholas Cohen

Edward Thorndike

-studied learning in animals with a "puzzle box" where animals had to perform simple acts to escape and reach a dish of food.

Trial and error

it was through trial and error that the rats gradually eliminated useless responses and eventually chanced upon the successful behavior.

Law of effect

Thorndike's principle that responses that have satisfying effects are more likely to recur, whereas those that have unpleasant effects are less likely to recur

Reinforcement

-first part of the law of effect
-states that responses that have satisfying effects are strengthened and become more likely o occur again in a given situation

Punishment

-second part of the law of effect
-responses that lead to discomfort are weakened and become less likely to recur

Operant conditioning

-B.F. Skinner
-the process of learning in which consequences of a response determine the probability that the response will be repeated.
-organisms learn responses that operate on the environment to produce consequences
-also called instrumental learning because the behavior is instrumental in bringing about rewarding consequences

Radical behaviorism

the philosophical position that free will is an illusion or myth and that human and animal behavior is completely determined by environmental and genetic influences

Skinner box

an experimental apparatus developed by B.F. Skinner for studying relationships between reinforcement and behavior

Operant response

a response that operates on the environment to produce certain consequences

Reinforcer

a stimulus or event that increases the probability that the response it follows will be repeated

Superstitious behavior

in Skinner's view, behavior acquired through coincidental association of a response and a reinforcement

Positive reinforcement

the strengthening of a response through the introduction of a stimulus (positive reinforcer or reward) after the response occurs

Negative reinforcement

the strengthening of a response through the removal of a stimulus after the response occurs.

Primary reinforcers

reinforcers, such as food or sexual stimulation, that are naturally rewarding because they satisfy basic biological needs or drives

Secondary reinforcers

learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers

Discriminative stimulus

a cue that signals that reinforcement is available if the subject makes a particular response

Shaping

a process of learning that involves the reinforcement of increasingly closer approximations of the desired response

Extinction (operant conditioning)

A process by which a response that has been learned is weakened and eventually eliminated when the responses is repeatedly performed but is no longer reinforced.

Schedules of reinforcement

predetermined plans for timing the delivery of reinforcement

Schedules of continuous reinforcement

a system of dispensing a reinforcement each time a response is produced

schedule of partial reinforcement

a system of reinforcement in which only a portion of responses is reinforced

Partial reinforcement is administered under two general kinds of schedules

1. ratio schedules
2. interval schedules

-can be administered on either a fixed or variable basis

Ratio schedules

based on number of responses

Interval schedules

based on the timing of responses

Fixed-Ratio schedule

reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses

Variable-Ratio schedule

the number of correct responses needed before reinforcement is given varies around some average number

Fixed-Interval schedule

reinforcement is given only for a correct response made after a fixed amount of time has elapsed since the last reinforcement.

Variable-Interval schedule

the amount of time that must elapse before reinforcement can be given for a correct response is variable rather than fixed.

Escape learning

the learning of behaviors that allow an organism to escape from an aversive stimulus

Avoidance learning

the learning of behaviors that allow an organism to avoid an aversive stimulus

Punishment (Skinner)

the introduction of an aversive stimulus or the removal of a reinforcing stimulus after a response occurs, which leads to the weakening or suppression of the response

Positive punishment

an aversive or unpleasant stimulus is imposed as a consequence of an undesirable behavior, which over time tends to reduce the frequency of the undesirable behavior.

Negative punishment

A reinforcing stimulus is removed as a consequence of an undesirable behavior, which over time tends to reduce the frequency of the undesirable behavior.

Punishment has many drawbacks:

1. punishment may suppress undesirable behavior, but it doesn't eliminate it.
2. punishment does not teach new behaviors.
3. punishment can have undesirable consequences.
4. punishment may become abusive.
5. punishment may represent a form of inappropriate modeling.

Milder punishments:

1. verbal reprimand
2. removal of a reinforcer
3. time-out

Biofeedback training

a technique for teaching people to change certain bodily responses, including heart rate and types of brain waves

Behavior modification (B-mod)

the systematic application of learning principles to strengthen adaptive behavior and weaken maladaptive behavior

Token economy program

a form of behavior modification in which tokens earned for performing desired behaviors can be exchanged for positive reinforcers.

Programmed instruction

a learning method in which complex material is broken down into a series of small steps that learners master at their own pace

Computer-assisted instruction

a form of programmed instruction in which a computer is used to guide a student through a series of increasingly difficult questions

Giving praise

1. connect
2. use hugs
3. be specific
4. avoid empty flattery
5. reward the effort, not the outcome
6. avoid repeating yourself
7. don't end on a sour note

Cognitive learning

learning that occurs without the opportunity of first performing the learned response or being reinforced for it

Insight learning

the process of mentally working through a problem until the sudden realization of a solution occurs
-Wolfgang Kohler and Sultan the chimp

Latent learning

learning that occurs without apparent reinforcement and that is not displayed until reinforcement is provided
-Edward Tolman and C.H. Honzik trained rats to run a maze and rewarded only some.

Cognitive map

a mental representation of an area that helps an organism navigate its way from one point to another

Observational learning

learning by observing and imitating the behavior of others
-also called vicarious learning or modeling
-Albert Bandura believes that children learn to imitate aggressive behavior they observe in the home, schoolyard, and on tv.

Model

a person whose behavior is observed by another
-stronger when the model is similar to the learner and when positive reinforcement for performing the behavior is evident.

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What occurs any time a stimulus when presented after a response strengthens the response?

What is a stimulus that increases the occurrence of a response?

How does learning occur in response to a stimulus?

What type of behavior occurs as an automatic response to a stimulus?