Scientific Method | The standard procedure for acquiring and verifying empirical(concrete, scientific) knowledge. |
Literature Review | A thorough search through previously published studies relevant to a particular topic. |
Hypothesis | A theoretical statement explaining the relationship between 2 or more phenomena. |
Variables | One of two or more phenomena that a researcher believes are related and hopes to prove through research |
Paradigm Shift | Describes a change in basic assumptions of a particular scientific discipline. |
Ethnography | A naturalistic method based on studying people in their own environment in order to understand the meanings they attribute to their activities. |
Participant Observation | A methodology associated with ethnography where the researcher both observes and becomes a member in a social setting. |
Access | The process by which an ethnographer gains entry to a field setting. |
Fieldnotes | Detailed notes taken by an ethnographer describing her activities and interactions--becomes an ethnographic analysis. |
Reflexivity | How the identity and activities of the researcher influence what is going on in the field setting. |
Grounded Theory | An inductive method of generating theory from data by creating categories in which to place data and then looking for relationships between categories. |
Replicability | Research that can be repeated, and thus verified, by other researchers later. |
Representativeness | The degree to which a particular studied group is similar to, or represents any part of the larger society. |
Bias | An opinion held by the researcher that might affect the research or analysis. |
Interviews | Face-to-face information-seeking conversation, sometimes defined as a conversation with a purpose. |
Respondents | A researcher solicits information from them |
Target Population | The entire group about which the reporter generalizes |
Sample | The part of the population that will actually be studied |
Informed Consent | The researcher makes sure that respondents are freely participating and understanding the nature of research |
Close-ended Question | Imposes a limit on possible responses (asked of a respondent) |
Open-ended Question | Allows the answer to take whatever form the respondent chooses |
Leading Questions | Predispose a respondent to answer in a certain way |
Double-Barreled Questions | Attempt to get at multiple issues at once, and so tend to receive incomplete answers |
Survey | A method based on questionnaires that are administrated to a sample of respondents selected from a target population |
Likert Scale | A way of organizing categories on a survey question so that the respondent can choose an answer along a continuum |
Negative Questions | Ask respondents what they don't think instead of what they do |
Representative Sample | Taken so that findings from members of the same sample group can be generalized to the whole population |
Probability Sampling | Any sampling scheme where the probability of selecting any given unit is known |
Simple Random Sample | A particular type of probability sample, where every member of the population has an equal chance at being selected. |
Weighting | Techniques for manipulating the sampling procedure so that the sample more closely resembles the larger population |
Reliability | The consistency of a question or measurement tool, the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers |
Confidentiality | The assurance of privacy |
Validity | The accuracy of a question or measurement tool |
Pilot Study | A small study carried out to test the feasibility of a larger one |
Experimental Group | Part of a test group that receives the experimental treatment |
Control | The process of regulating all factors except the independent variable |
Control Group | Allowed to continue without intervention, so that they can be compared with the experimental group |
Existing Sources | Any previously collected data |
Comparative and Historical Methods | Use existing sources to study relationships between elements of society in various regions and time periods |
Content Analysis | A method in which researchers identify and study specific variables--such as words--in a text, image, or media message |
Value-Free Sociology | An ideal whereby researchers identify facts without allowing their own personal beliefs or biases to interfere |
Basic Research | The search for knowledge without any agenda or desire to use that knowledge to effect change |
Applied Research | Designed to allow the researcher to use what is learned to create some sort of change |
Objectivity | Impartiality, the ability to allow the facts speak for themselves |
Reactivity | The tendency of people and events to react the process of being studied |
Hawthorne Effect | A specific example of reactivity, where the desired effect is the result of not the independent variable, but of the research itself |
Code of Ethics | Ethical guidelines for researchers to consult as they design a project |
Institutional Review Board | A group of scholars within a university who meet regularly to review and approve the research of their colleagues and make recommendations for how to protect human subjects |
Culture | The entire way of life of a group of people that acts as a lens through which one views the world and is passed from one generation to the next |
Ethnocentrism | The principle of using one's own culture as a means or standard by which to evaluate another group or individual, leading tot he view that cultures other than one's own are abnormal |
Cultural Relativism | The principle of understanding other cultures on their own terms, rather than judging or evaluating to one's culture |
Material Culture | The objects associated with a cultural group, such as tools, machines, utensils, buildings and artwork: any physical object which we give social meaning |
Symbolic Culture | The ideas associated with a culture group, including ways of thinking (beliefs, values, and assumptions) and ways of behaving |
Sign | A symbol that stands for, or conveys an idea |
Gestures | The ways in which people communicate with their bodies without words. Actions that have symbolic meaning |
Language | A system of communication--sounds, gestures, etc. The basis of symbolic culture and the main way we communicate |
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis | An idea that language structures thought, and the ways of looking at the world are embedded in language |
Values | Ideas about what is desirable or contemptible and right or wrong in a particular group |
Norm | A rule or guideline regarding what kinds of behavior are acceptable or appropriate within a culture |
Law | A common type of formally defined norm--provides an explicit statement about what is okay and not okay in a given society |
Folkway | A loosely enforced norm, involving common customs, practices, etc. that ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance |
More | Closely related to the core values of a cultural group; often involves severe repercussions for violators |
Taboo | A norm engrained so deeply that even thinking about violating it evokes strong feelings of disgust, horror, or revulsion |
Sanction | Positive or negative reactions to the ways that people follow or disobey norms. Has rewards and punishments |
Social Control | The formal and informal mechanisms used to increase conformity to values and norms--cohesion |
Multiculturalism | Values diverse backgrounds and encourages the retention of cultural differences within society |
Dominant Culture | The values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful (wealth, prestige, etc) |
Hagemony | Describes the cultural aspects of social control--the ideas of the dominant social group are accepted by all of society |
Subculture | A group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive values, norms, and lifestyles |
Counter Culture | Rebels the norm |
Cultural Wars | Clashes within mainstream society over the values and norms that should be upheld |
Ideal Culture | The norms, values, and patterns of behavior that members of a society believe should be observed |
Real Culture | The norms, values, and patterns of behavior that actually exist within a society |
Popular Culture | Forms of cultural expression usually associated with the masses, consumer goods, and commercial products |
High Culture | Cultural expression usually associated with the elite class |
Taste Publics | Groups who share similar artistic, literature, media, recreational, and intellectual interests |
Polysemy | Having many possible meanings or interpretations |
Interpretive Community | Dedicated the consumption and interpretation of a particular cultural product and create a collective, social meaning for the product |
Art World | The group comprised of everyone involved in the creation, distribution, and consumption of any cultural product |
Technology | Material artifacts and the knowledge and techniques required to use them |
Technological Determination | The notion that develops in material culture provide the primary driving forces behind social organization and change |
Cultural Diffusion | The dissemination of beliefs and practices from one group to another |
Cultural Leveling | The process by which cultures that were once odd become similar |
Cultural Imperialism | The imposition of one culture's beliefs, practices, and artifacts on another culture through mass media and consumer products |
Nature Vs. Nurture Debate | The ongoing discussion of the roles of genetics and socialization in determining the individual behaviors and traits |
Socialization | The process of learning and adapting the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group, by which we become functioning members of society |
Self | The individual's conscious, reflexive experience of a personal identity separate and distinct from others |
Id | Consists of basic inborn drives that are the source of instinctive psychic energy |
Ego | The realistic aspect of the mind that balances the forces of the id and the superego |
Superego | Has two components: the conscience and the ego-ideal, and represents the internalized demands of society |
Psycho-Sexual Stages of Development | 4 distinct stages of the development of the self between birth and adulthood |
Looking-Glass Self | The notion that the self develops through our perception of others' evaluations and appraisals of us |
Generalized Other | The perceptives and expectations of a network of others that a child learns and then takes into account when shaping his or her own behavior |
Dual Nature of the Self | The belief that we experience the self as both subject and object, the "I" and the "me" |
Thomas Theorem | Classic formulation of the way individuals define situations whereby, "if people define situations as the real, they are real in their consequences |
Definition of the Situation | An agreement with others about "what is going on" in a given circumstance. Allows us to coordinate our actions with others and realize goals |
Expressions of Behavior | Small actions such as an eye roll or head nod, which serve as an interactional tool to help project our definition of the situation to others |
Expressions Given | Intentional and usually verbal, such as utterances |
Expressions Given Off | Observable expressions that can be either intended or unintended and are usually non-verbal |
Impression Management | The effort to control the impressions we make on others so that they form a desired view of us and the situation; the use of self presentation and performance tactics |
Dramaturgy | An approach in which social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theatrical performance |
Front | The dramaturgical perspective, the setting or scene of performances that helps establish the definition of the situation |
Personal Front | The expressive equipment we consciously or unconsciously use as we present ourselves to others, including appearance and manner |
Region | The context or setting in which the performance takes place |
Backstage | Places in which we rehearse and prepare our performances |
Frontstage | The region in which we deliver our public performances |
Cooling the Mark Out | Behaviors that help others to save face or avoid embarrassment |
Autoethnography | Ethnographic description that focuses on the feelings and reactions of the ethnographer |
Agents of Socialization | Social groups, institutions, and individuals that provide structured situations in which socialization takes place |
Group | A collection of people who share some attribute, identify with one another, and interact with each other |
Crowd | A temporary gathering of people in a public place; members might interact but do not identify with each other and will not remain in contact |
Aggregate | A collection of people who share a physical location but do not have lasting social relations |
Primary Groups | The people who are most important to our sense of self |
Secondary Groups | Members' relationships are typically characterized by face-to-face interaction, high levels of cooperation and intense feelings of belonging |
Social Network | The web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people who may also affect her |
Social Ties | Connections between individuals |
Anomie | "Normlessness," Term used to describe the aienation and loss of purpose that result from weaker social bonds and an increased pace of change |
Electronic or Virtual Communities | Social group whose interactions are meditated through information technologies, particularly the internet |
Group Dynamics | The patterns of interaction between groups and individuals |
Dyad | A two-person social group |
Triad | A three-person social group |
In-Group | A group that one identifies with and feels loyally toward |
Out-Group | Any group an individual feels opposition, rivalry, or hostility toward |
Reference Group | A group that provides standard of comparison against which we evaluate ourselves |
Group Cohesion | The sense of solidarity or loyalty that individuals feel toward a group to which they belong |
Groupthink | In very cohesive groups, the tendency to enforce a high degree of conformity among members, creating a demand for a unanimous agreement |
Social Influence (Peer Pressure) | The influence of one's fellow group members on individual attitudes and behaviors |
Prescriptions | Behaviors approved of by a particular social group |
Proscriptions | Behaviors a particular social group wants its members to avoid |
Compliance | The mildest type of conformity, undertaken to gain rewards or avoid punishments |
Identification | Stronger than compliance and weaker than internalization, caused by a desire to establish or maintain a relationship with a person or group |
Internalization | The strongest type of conformity, occurring when an individual adopts the beliefs or actions of a group and makes them her own |
What is are the consistency of a measurement tool or the degree to which the same questions will produce similar answers?
Reliability and validity Reliability is the degree to which an assessment tool produces stable and consistent results. Validity refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure. Score reliability The consistency with which two or more individuals would score the same response to a test item.
Is are the consistency of a measurement tool or the degree?
RELIBILITY - is the consistency of your measurement, or the degree to which an instrument measures the same way each time it is used under the same condition with the same subjects. In short, it is the repeatability of your measurement.
What refers to consistency in measurement?
Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. 1 A test is considered reliable if we get the same result repeatedly.
Which type of variable is a sometimes overlooked variable that explains the relationship between two other variables?
Control variables are often overlooked in research design, which not only can lead to confounding variables but also can adversely affect the internal and external validity of a study. Researchers should consider control variables as important as independent and dependent variables when designing a study.