the scientific study of systematic processes of change and stability in children from conception through adolescence
growth of body and brain, including biological and physiological patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health
pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity
Social/Personality: (also known as psychosocial)
pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships; in erikson’s eight-stage theory, the socially and culturally influenced process of development of the ego, or self
Prenatal period physical developments
conception occurs by normal fertilization or other means
the genetic endowment interacts with environmental influences from the start
basic body structures and organs form; brain growth spurt begins
physical growth is the most rapid in the life span
vulnerability to environmental influences is great
Prenatal period cognitive developments
abilities to learn and remember and to respond to sensory stimuli are developing
Prenatal period psychosocial developments
fetus responds to mother’s voice and develops a preference for it
Infancy and Toddlerhood physical developments
all senses and body systems operate at birth to varying degrees
the brain grows in complexity and is highly sensitive to environmental influence
- physical growth and development of motor skills are rapid
Infancy and Toddlerhood cognitive developments
abilities to learn and remember are present, even in early weeks
use of symbols and ability to solve problems develop by end of 2nd year
comprehension and use of language develop rapidly
Infancy and Toddlerhood psychosocial developments
attachments to parents and others form
self-awareness develops
shift from dependence to autonomy occurs
- interest in other children increases
Early childhood physical developments
growth is steady; appearance becomes more slender and proportions are more adultlike
appetite diminishes, and sleep problems are common
handedness appears; fine and gross motor skills and strength improve
Early childhood cognitive developments
thinking is somewhat egocentric, but understanding of other people’s perspectives grows.
cognitive immaturity results in some illogical ideas about the world
memory and language improve
- preschool experience is common, and kindergarten experience is more so
Early childhood psychosocial developments
self-concept
and understanding of emotions become more complex; self-esteem is global
independence, initiative, and self-control increase
gender identity develops
play becomes more imaginative, more elaborate, and usually more social
altruism, aggression, and fearfulness are common
family is still the focus of social life, but other children become more important
Middle childhood physical developments
growth slows
strength and athletic skills improve
- respiratory illnesses are common, but health is generally better than at any other time in life span
Middle childhood cognitive developments
egocentrism diminishes, children begin to think logically but concretely
memory and language skills increase
cognitive gains permit children to benefit from formal schooling
- some children show special educational needs and strengths
Middle childhood psychosocial developments
self-concept becomes more complex, affecting self-esteem
coregulation reflects gradual shift in control from parents to child
- peers assume central importance
Adolescence physical developments
physical growth and other changes are rapid and profound
reproductive maturity occurs
- major health risks arise from behavioral issues, such as eating disorders and drug abuse
Adolescence cognitive developments
ability to think abstractly and use scientific reasoning develops
immature thinking persists in some attitudes and behaviors
- education focuses on preparation for college or vocation
Adolescence psychosocial developments
search for identity, including sexual identity, becomes central
relationships with parents are generally good
- peer group may exert a positive or negative influence
groups of people born at about the same time
provide an example of history-graded influences, which are biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical movement
a child is a blank slate upon which society writes-- Locke; in this view, children entered the world with no specific characteristics or personalities-- instead they were entirely shaped by their experiences as they grew up
journals kept to record the early development of a single child; it was not until Darwin that the observation of children took a more systematic turn
Stage-like change (Discontinuous)
change occurs in distinct steps or stages; behavior and processes are qualitatively different at different stages
change is gradual, achievements at one level build on previous level; underlying developmental processes remain the same over the life span
a specific time when a given event, or its absence, has a specific impact on development
times in development when a given event or its absence usually has a strong effect on development
emphasis is on discovering inherited genetic traits and abilities
emphasis is on environmental influences that affect a person’s development
current theories emphasize growth and change throughout life, relatedness of different periods
infancy and adolescence emphasized by early developmentalists as most important periods
coherent set of logically related concepts; used to organize, explain, and predict data. inspires further research and predict its results by generating hypotheses, tentative explanations, or predictions
possible explanation for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research
people create experiences and are motivated to learn about the world around them
children grasp experiences and this input molds them over time
views human development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli
people are like machines that react to environmental input
predicts human behavior based upon internal and external forces at work
- seeks to identify the factors that make people behave as they do
views human development as internally initiated by an active organism, and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages
sees children as active, growing organisms
people initiate events, do not just react to them
impetus for change is internal
- environmental influences can speed or slow development
change in number or amount, such as in height, weight, or size of vocabulary
change in kind, structure, or organization
Traditional 5 Perspectives of Development
Psycho-analytic, Learning, Cognitive, Contextual, Evolutionary/Sociobiological
behavior is controlled by powerful unconscious urges; personality is influenced by society and develops through a series of crises
people are responders; the environment controls behavior; children learn in a social context by observing and imitating models; they are contributors to learning
qualitative changes in thought occur between infancy and adolescence; children are active initiators of development; social interaction is central to cognitive development; human beings are processors of symbols
development occurs through interaction between a developing person and five surrounding, interlocking contextual systems of influences, from microsystem to chronosystem
Evolutionary/sociobiological
human beings are the product of adaptive processes; evolutionary and biological bases for behavior and predisposition toward learning are important
development is seen as occurring in a series of distinct stages, like stair step
Examples of stage-like theories of development
Freud’s psychosexual stages
Erikson’s psychosocial stages
- Piaget’s cognitive stages
Brofenbrener’s Bioecological theory
The child is influenced by multiple levels of environment.
- Microsystem (bidirectional influences)---> Mesosystem (interaction of any two microsystems) ---> Exosystem ---> Macrosystem (economic and political system, dominant beliefs and ideologies)---> Chronosystem (dimension of time)
interpretation of non-numerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs
focuses on the how and why of behavior
- informs both how they collect data as well as its interpretation
deals with objectively measurable data; uses scientific method
system of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry
- Identifies a problem to be studied, formulates a hypothesis to be tested by research,collects data,analyzes the data, forms tentative conclusions, disseminates findings
case studies, naturalistic studies, ethnographic studies, laboratory/analogue observations, correlational studies, experiments
study of a single subject, such as an individual or family. offers useful in-depth information
people are observed in their normal setting, with no attempt to manipulate behavior
in-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation; borrowed from field of anthropology and used to investigate cultural questions. uses a combination of methods, including informal, unstructured interviewing and participant observation
laboratory/analogue observations
participants are observed in the laboratory, with no attempt to manipulate behavior
intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variable exists
rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other
doesn’t accurately represent the population, may not apply
group receiving the treatment under study
group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under study
Blind, double-blind studies
neither participants nor experimenters know who is receiving treatment and who is instead receiving an inert placebo.
condition over which the experimenter has direct control
condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable
assignment of participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group
data are collected on people of different ages at the same time
can show similarities and differences among age groups; speedy, economical; presents no problem of attrition or repeated testing.
- cannot establish age effects; masks individual differences; can be confounded by cohort effects
data are collected on same person or persons over a period of time
can show age-related change or continuity; avoids confounding age with cohort effects
- is time consuming, expensive; presents problems of attrition, bias in sample, and effects of repeated testing; results may be valid only for cohort tested or sample studied
data are collected on successive cross-sectional or longitudinal samples
can avoid drawbacks of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs
- requires large amount of time and effort and analysis of very complex data
several hundred million are produced in testicles each day; enter the vagina through ejaculation and attempt to reach the cervix, very few will arrive in the fallopian tubes when fertilization takes place
2 million in their ovaries, each contained in a follicle; during ovulation, when sexual maturity is attained, a mature follicle is ruptured and expelled from the ovary; swept through the fallopian tube toward the uterus
Union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote; takes place in the fallopian tubes
genetic transmission of heritable characteristics from parents to offspring
sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; set of rules that govern the formation of proteins that determine the structure and functions of living cells
adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine-- make up the genetic code
coils of DNA that consist of genes
small segments of DNA located in definite positions on particular chromosomes; functional units of heredity; located in a definite position on chromosome; contains thousands of base pairs
process by which the non-sex cells divide in half over and over again; DNA replicated itself, so that each newly formed cells has the same DNA structure as all the others
type of cell division which the sex cells undergo when they are developing; each sex cell ends up with only 23 chromosomes
pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant on is expressed
pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical recessive alleles, only the dominant one is expressed
pattern of inheritance in which multiple genes at different sites on chromosomes affect a complex trait
two or more alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same position on paired chromosomes and affect the same gene
genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics
observable characteristics of a person
Multifactorial transmission
combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits
mechanism that turns genes on or off and determines functions of body cells
Birth defects via dominant sex-linked patterns
Achrondroplasia-type of dwarfism; Huntington’s disease
Birth defects via recessive sex-linked patterns
Tav-Sachs; Sickle-cell anemia- can be incomplete dominance
errors in cell division, extra or missing chromosome
quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences on behavior
statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population at a particular time
measure the degree to which biological relatives share certain traits; relation between closeness of familial relationship and degree of similarity on trait
look at similarities between adopted children and their adoptive parents
compare pairs of monozygotic twins with same-sex dizygotic twins
level of similarity shared by twins on same trait or disorder
potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the expression of a hereditary trait
limited variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics
Genotype-Environment Interaction
effect of the interaction between genes and the environment on phenotypic variation
Genotype-Environment Correlation
tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other; may be passive, reactive (evocative), or active
parents, who provide the genes that predispose a child toward a trait, also tend to provide an environment that encourages the development of that trait
children with differing genetic makeups evoke different responses from adults
as children grow older, they select experiences consistent with their genetic tendencies; i.e. niche picking
tender, swollen breasts or nipples; fatigue; need to take extra naps; slight bleeding or cramping; nausea with or without vomiting; food cravings; frequent urination; frequent,mild headaches; constipation; mood swings; faintness and dizziness; raised basal body temperature
period of development between conception and birth
age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother’s last menstrual cycle
fertilized ovum, or zygote, grows into an embryo and then a fetus
molecules that are switched on after fertilization
development proceeds in head-to-tail direction; upper parts of the body develop before lower parts of the trunk
development proceeds from within to without; parts of the body near the center develop before the extremities
first stage in prenatal development (first 2 weeks)
characterized by: rapid cell division, increasing complexity and differentiation
- implantation in the wall of the uterus
attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine wall, occurring at about day 6
2 to 8 weeks
Characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems develop rapidly
- Severely defective embryos usually do not survive beyond the first trimester of pregnancy
- Organogenesis
- spontaneous abortion can occur
process in which the organs and major body systems develop rapidly (respiratory, digestive, and nervous)
8 weeks to birth
characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size
- fetus adds a layer of fat in preparation for birth
Times of vulnerability per Central nervous system
3 to 5 weeks after conception, less common from 6-38 weeks
Times of vulnerability for the heart
3-6 weeks after conception, less common from 6-8 weeks
Times of vulnerability for arms
4-8 weeks after conception, less common during 8 weeks
Time of vulnerability for the eyes
4-7 weeks after conception, less common from 8-38 weeks
Time of vulnerability for the legs
4-8 weeks after conception, less common from 8-9 weeks
Time of vulnerability for the teeth
7-9 weeks after conception, less common from 9-16 weeks
Time of vulnerability for the palate
7-9 weeks after conception, less common during 9 weeks
Time of vulnerability for the External genitalia
7-9 weeks after conception, less common during the rest of gestation
Time of vulnerability for the ears
4-8 weeks after conception, less common from 9-16 weeks
Maternal factors on prenatal development
the prenatal environment is the mother’s body; everything that affects the mother’s well-being may alter her unborn child’s environment and influence its growth and health, such as teratogens
Outside Environmental factors on prenatal development
air pollution, chemicals, radiation, extreme heat and humidity
Paternal factors on prenatal development
exposure to lead, marijuana or tobacco smoke, large amounts of alcohol or radiation, DES, or pesticides
Prenatal care (disparities)
increasing number of multiple births are heightened risk of death within the first year, benefits are not evenly distributed, ethnic disparity in fetal and post-birth mortality
physical examinations and the taking of medical and family histories, vaccinations for rubella and hepatitis B, risk screening for genetic disorders and infectious diseases such as STDs; counsels women to avoid smoking and alcohol, maintain a healthy body weight, and take folic acid supplements
History of birthing techniques
Prior to the 20th century, birth was a female social ritual
- Home deliveries and midwives
a surgical act, very medical and impersonal
at home with trained midwives
demedicalize birthing experience; rooming-in policies
Parturition: Process of giving birth
Begins about two weeks before delivery
Determined by increase in the rate of production of corticotropin-releasing hormone
- Uterine, cervical, and other changes occur
Dilation of the Cervix, Descent and emergence of the baby, Expulsion of the placenta
Lasts 12 to 14 hours
Regular and increasingly uterine contractions
- Stage lasts until the cervix is fully open
Descent and emergence of the baby
Lasts 1 to 2 hours
Baby's head begins to move through the cervix into the vaginal canal
- Baby completely emerges out
Expulsion of the placenta
Lasts 10 minutes to 1 hour
- Placenta and the remainder of the umbilical cord are expelled
Electrical fetal monitoring
Tracks the fetus's heartbeat during labor and delivery
Indicates how the fetal heart is responding to the stress of uterine contractions
- Provides valuable information in high-risk deliveries
Drawbacks of electronic fetal monitoring
Costly
Restricts the mother's movements during labor
- Has an extremely high false-positive rate
usual method of giving birth; baby is expelled out of the vagina
surgically removing the baby from the uterus
Cesarean delivery is done when
Labor progresses too slowly
Fetus seems to be in trouble
Vaginal bleeding
Breech or transverse position of fetus
- Head is too big to pass through the mother's pelvis
Disadvantages of Cesarean Delivery for the Mother
Bleeding
Infection
Damage to pelvic organs
Postoperative pain
- Risks of problems in future pregnancies
Disadvantages of Cesarean Delivery for the Baby
Deprives the baby of hormones that:
Clear the lungs of excess fluids
Mobilize
Local: pendual block; Analgesic: regional; epidural or spinal