1. (genotype) - do not change in response to the environment, but they do interact with the environment. - the color and appearance of your skin, for example, results from an interplay between your genotype and environmental factors including sun, wind exposure age nutrition and smoking and how they are expressed.
2. (phenotype) - is apparent in her unique physical, psychological, and behavioral
characteristics.
- our genetic make-up influences our behavior and psychologists are interested in learning how genes might do this.
- evidence now suggest that a person's genotype may be predispose him to developing schizophrenia.
- the disorder results from a combination of genotype and experience, including diet, stress, toxins, and early parenting
(epigenetics): a field that examines the processes involved in the development of phenotypes.
- it does impact the expression of
our genes
(dominant Gene):- Governs the expression of the inherited characteristic, overpowering the recessive, or subordinate gene in the pair.
A (recessive gene): - cannot overcome the influence of a dominant gene. for example dimples are dominate and no dimples are recessive. if one gene encodes for dimples and the other no dimples then dimples will be expressed.
together the egg and sperm formed a single cell called (zygote): is smaller than the
tip of a needle.
-a zygote begins to divide into two cells, then each of those cells divides, and so on. this fast-growing mass of cells begins to move through the Fallopian tube toward the uterus.
(monozygotic twins): develop from one egg inseminated at conception. -this egg is fertilized by one sperm and then splits forming separate zygotes. monozygotic twins have identical sets of 46 chromosomes as originated from the same zygote and infants are the same sex and have almost identical
features.
(dizygotic twins): - occur when two eggs are inseminated by two different sperm, leading to the development of two zygotes.
-from conception to the end of the 2nd week is the (germinal period) which is rapidly dividing zygote implants in the uterine wall. between the 3rd and 8th week of development, the growing mass of cells is (called embryo) the embryo is protected in amniotic sac and eventually receives nourishment, hydration and oxygen through the umbilical cord, which is
attached to the placenta. the placenta ensures the blood of the mother and the baby do not mix and dispose of carbon dioxide and waste. now the cells are identical.
- during the (embroyonic period) the cells and mayor organs and systems begin to form
(Teratogens) are agents that can damage a zygote, embryo, or fetus examples: radiation, viruses, bacteria, chemicals, and drugs
(fetal alcohol syndrome) results of moderate to heavy alcohol use during pregnancy that can cause delays in
normal development.
- between 2 months and birth the growing human is called a (fetus) - fetal period, the developing person grows from the size of a pumpkin seed to a small water watermelon and the average birth weight is 7 pounds.
(Kangaroo care): physical closeness, preemie mothers who kangaroo and have close skin to skin contact in the hospital report less depression and are more attuned to their babies needs then to those who are. touch is very important to preterm
babies.
what does a new born do when you stroke its cheek?
-she opens her mouth and turns her head in the direction of your finger, this (rooting reflex) disappears at 4 months.
the (sucking reflex): when you touch her lips also appears to be a feeding reflex.
-sucking and swallowing abilities don't fully mature until 33-36 weeks.
- newborns spend most of their time eating, sleeping, crying.
(New born senses): examples infants prefer to look at human faces as
opposed to geometric shapes.
- newborns can discriminate their mothers voice within hours of birth.
- babies indeed come to recognize their mothers voices while in the womb.
-it takes some time for amniotic fluid to dry up completely before a baby can hear clearly.
- babies can distinguish their mothers breast from other women within days of birth.
-babies prefer sweet tastes, react strongly to sour tastes, and notice changes in their mothers diet because these tastes are present
in breast milk.
if mothers eat something very sweet, the infant tends to breast- feed longer.
-newborns respond to pain with the reactions similar to those of older infants, children, adults.
-vision is the weakest sense in newborns.
-the distance for a newborn to see an object is 8-14 inches away from his face.
-eye contact strengthens the relationship between mother and baby.
- the myelin sheath increases the efficiency of neural communication, which leads to better motor
control, enabling a baby to reach milestones.
-between the ages of 3 and 6, for example the greatest increase in neural connections occur in the frontal lobes, the area of the brain involved in planning and attention.
- synaptic pruning and other aspects of the brain development are strongly influenced by experiences and input from the outside world.
-question:how does this research on lab rates relate to human development? answer: isolation and lack of stimulation may also put a
damper on the brain development of infants and children.
-orphanage-raised babies that have received minimal care and human interaction experience delays in cognitive, social and physical development.
- brain development that occurs during childhood and the cognitive changes associated with it are critical because babies that come in this world incapable of using language.
- yet by age 6 have a vocabulary of 13,000 words.
-language is just one
domain of cognitive development.
question: how do other processes like memory and problem solving evolve through childhood?
- psychologist jean piaget first to suggest that infants have cognitive abilities, children cognitive development takes place in stages.
-one of the basic units of cognition according to piaget is (schema).
-(schema) is a collection of ideas or notions representing a basic unit of understanding.
- as children mature, so do their schemas, which begin to
organize and structure their thinking around more abstract categories such as love.
- children expand their schemas in response to life experiences and interaction with the environment
- (assimilation) an attempt to understand new information using his already existing knowledge base or schema.
- however if the new information is disconcerting that it cannot be assimilated, he might us (accommodation)
(accommodation) a restructuring of old notions to make place for new information.
with (accommodation) we remodel old schemas or create new ones.
- assimilate information to fit new experiences into our old ways of thinking, we accommodate our old way of thinking to understanding new information.
- cognitive development occurs in 4 periods of stages.
1.(sensorimotor stage) from birth to about 2 years old: infants use sensory abilities and motor activities such as reaching a crowing and handling things.
-exploring objects with their mouths fingers and toes
mile stone of sensorimotor stage is (object permanence): infants realization that objects and people still exist when they are out of sight.
- infants fear of his mother disappearance and surprise at her reappearance didn't last when he learned about object permanence.
2. (preoperational stage) applies to children from 2 to 7 years old: children start using language, explore and under stand their world rather then relying on sensory and motor activities.
- in this stage children ask
question and using symbolic thinking
-this is the time for pretending and magical thinking
(egocentrism): they can only imagine the world around them from their own perspective.
- they have a hard time putting them selves in someone else's shoes.
- children have a difficult time understanding the reversibility of some actions or events
(conservation): which refers to the unchanging properties of volume, mass or amount in relation to appearance,
- children at this age
generally focus on only on characteristic of an object.
3. (concrete operational stage) at age 7: begin to think more logically, mainly i reference to concrete objects and circumstances
- understand concept of conversation
- limited logical thinking
- trouble thinking hypothetically, respond with blank stare
4. (formal operational stage): begin thinking more logically and more systematically.
- solve problems
- not every reaches this stage piaget says
- vygotsky interested in social and cultural factors that affect children cognitive development
- children receive help from other children and adults progress more quickly in cognitive abilities.
- children show advancement in goal directed behavior and able to plane ahead
- support children cognitive development through (scaffolding): pushing them to go just beyond what they are competent and comfortable doing.
- able to provide help if needed
-offer
guidance at the beginning of the learning process
- if becoming more skilled a parent or caregiver provides support if need but allows a child to solve problems independently
- vygotsky says learning occurs within the context of a child's culture
- from birth, infants display characteristic differences in their behavior patters and emotional reactions that is, their temperament
- toddlers have excessive temperament.
- high reactive infants have a great deal of distress when
exposed to unfamiliar stimuli.
-environment can influence temperament
-easy babies because they follow regular eating and sleeping schedules, these babies can be soothed when upset and don't get rattled in a change of environment
- difficult babies are often irritable and unhappy, and far less responsive to soothing attempts.
- slow to warm up babies are not as irritable or active
- difficult babies are sensitive to input from their parents, can be a blessing or a cures
-higher quality parenting styles being emotionally responsive and respectful of their needs for Independence
- parents have the power to steer the development of their children in a positive or negative direction. making a good parent being sensitivity, acceptance, strength, unconditional love.
- in times of fear infant monkeys found comfort in the soft fury monkeys.
(attachment): physical contact plays an important role, the degree to which an infant feels an emotional connection
with the primary caregiver.
- researchers note the amount of anxiety displayed by the child before and after the stranger arrives.
(secure attachment): 65% children upset with their mother when leaving the room but easily soothed upon the return.
- children felt safe using their caregiver as a secure base when exploring the environment.
(avoidant attachment): 20% didn't show any signs wanting to interact when the mother left and returned, happy playing without looking at their
mothers or stranger
(ambivalent):10% was quit upset and focused on their mothers and wanting to beheld and unable to be soothed by their mothers and these children were angry and not interested in playing.
- parents provided a secure base for their infants to help regulate emotions or meet other needs, and feel comfortable exploring their environment.
- temperament in infants react the way they do in this setting, infants are prone to anxiety and uncertainty, are likely to respond
negatively.
- attachment formed early in childhood
- people who experienced and had feelings toward something at attachment as infants tend to have strong desires for continued closeness in adult relationships.
- those who had secure attachment are more likely to expect that they are lovable and others are capable of love.
_____puberty:______ is the period during which the body changes and becomes sexually mature and able to
reproduce.
____primary sex characteristics:____ during puberty, reproductive organs, ovaries, uterus, vagina, penis, scrotum, testes
______secondary sex characteristics:________ development of pubic, underarm, and body hair
- adolescents, changes in their skin and over all body hair
-girls pelvises begin to broden
-boys deepening of their voices and broadening of the shoulders.
girls experience (menarche): menstruation begins
boys experience (spermarche) first
ejaculation
-maturity is not the same for boys and girls
- girls mature early have negative out comes, increase anxiety and emotional problems
- reduce the rick factors, parents showing warmth and support
-boys mature early have more of a positive out come and do not show evidence of increase anxiety
- boys reaching full sexual maturuty at a rapid development rage in problems, aggressive behavior, cheating, temper tantrums.
- life styles
choices can have a profound health consequences.
early adult hood
- fertility occur in both men and women
women, reduction in fertility
men, fewer and poorer quality sperm
middle adult hood, skin wrinkles and sags due to collagen and elastin
- hair start turning grey
- eye sight starts to decline
- bones weaken
- average height loss is 1.6 inches
- maintain your structure and overall physique, participate in life long moderate endurance activities
- for
women middle adult hood, estrogen decrease, uterus shrinks, menstruation no longer flows a regular pattern
_____menopause:____ the time when ovulation and menstruation ceases
women think menopause to be temporary, a sense of relief
-men, androgen decline in the ageing male
- reduction of testosterone production
middle age adult complain of depression, fatigue, cognitive decline,associated with a tiny percentage due to lower testosterone with cognitive difficulties.
- late
adult hood begins at 65 year of age
- decline in physical and psychological functions
-vision problems, cataracts, impaired night vision
- hearing continues
-brain process more slowly
- exercise improves bone density and muscle strength with lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease
exercise lower the risk of Alzheimer's disease
- physical and cognitive development are closely intertwined
- cognitive ability remains stable from early to middle adult hood
-
cognitive function does not decrease during middle adulthood
- midlife, when information processing and memory can decline.
-after age 70, cognitive decline is more apparent
- processing ability/ speed may slow with old age.
-age does not limit us unless we allow it
- life experices allows people to develope a more balance understanding of the world around them, one of them comes with age.
two types of intelligence
1. crystallized intelligence: knowledge gained through
learning and experiences.
2. fluid intelligence: ability to think in abstract and create associations among concepts. as we age our speed of learning new material and creates associations decrease.
- working memory component of short term memory that maintains and manipulates information becomes less efficient
- physical exercise proves a cognitive boost, the same appears to be true of mental exercise
- tasks that help train working memory may or may not improve fluid intelligence,
even into older age
-working both physically and mentally and remain in good physical shape are less likely to experience significant cognitive decline.
Diana baumrind has identified 4 parenting behaviors
-distinguished by levels of warmth, responsiveness and control
1. authoritarian parenting: extremely strict and demonstrate poor communication skills
- low self assurance and autonomy, have problems in social settings
2. authoritative
parenting: high expectations, demonstrate a worm attitude and responsive to their child's needs
3. permissive parenting: parents demand little of their child and imposes few limitations, very warm- lack self control, act impulsively, no boundaries.
4. uninvolved parenting:minimal warmth, little time with their children.
-have behavior problems, poor academic performance
- other factors to consider including the home environment
- aging does not always go hand in hand with
cogitative decline
- experience doesn't always correlate with age
- most older adults are involved in their communities, faith, social lives, a large number have active sex lives
- happiness generally increases with age
- positive emotions become more frequent than negative ones.
- older people might feel happy because they no longer care about proving them selves in the world.
develop strong sense of emotion equilibrium