Confidentiality and avoiding deception are part of the psychologists code of variables

Psychologists should value the dignity and worth of all participants with sensitivity to perceived authority and influence, and should regard to people's right including privacy and self determination.

All participants should know they have the right to withdraw and have their data destroyed.

Protecting participants identity.

Psychologists should value the continuing development and maintain high standards of competence. They should work within their recognised limits in terms of knowledge, skill, training, education and experience.

Psychologists should value their responsibility to participants, the general public and too psychology. They should avoid harm and prevent the misuse or abuse of their contributions.

What is protection of participants?

Psychologists shouldn't embarrass, frighten, offend or harm participants. The risk of harm shouldn't be greater than that in ordinary life.

Wherever possible offer full information about the study afterwards.

Psychologists value honesty, accuracy, clarity and fairness and should seek to promote integrity in all facets of their scientific and professional endeavours.

Only use when there is no other way to carry out the study.

How can we address ethical issues/dilemmas

What are the key elements of a consent form?

Informs about the study, ask for them to participate and state participation is voluntary, aim of the research, what they would have to do, confidentially, they have the right to withdraw and ask questions, debrief and a signature and date box.

What are the three types of consent?

Presumptive consent - rather than getting consent from the participants themselves a similar group of people are asked if the study is acceptable. If this group agree then consent of the original group is presumed.

Prior general consent - potential participants are asked whether they are prepared to take part in studies one will contain deception.

Retrospective consent - is where the participant gives consent for their data to be used in the research once they've taken part and have been debriefed.

How can we address deception and protection from harm?

Presumptive consent, retrospective consent, prior general consent, right to withdraw, hypothetical dilemma, consulting and confidentiality.

What are the key elements of a debrief form?

Reminder it was fictional, confidentiality, allowed to ask more questions and contact information.

How can we address confidentiality?

Anonymous and no personal details.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of laboratory experiment.

High degree of control means less extraneous variables and improved accuracy.

Lack ecological validity.

Advantages and disadvantages of field experiment

Ecological valid.

Less control so there may be confounding variables.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of natural/quasi experiments?

Ecological valid as the independent variable occurs naturally. The sample used may be unrepresentative if the independent variable naturally affects one type of person more.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of observations?

All behaviours and natural and its ecologically valid. However there may be confounding variables.

What is the advantages and disadvantages of the self report method?

The researcher will only be given and gather event information however it is susceptible to social desirability and demand characteristics.

Advantages and disadvantages of correlational studies

Directly assesses how one factor assesses another and it details if and how one variable will affect another. However it doesn't consider other factors.

Advantages and disadvantages of case studies

Accurately represents that group and a lot of information can be gathered. However they're not generalisable.

Every member of the target population has an equal chance of appearing for example picking names out of a hat.

What is opportunity sampling?

Selecting the first available participants who are willing to take part like asking the first 10 people who walk in a cafe.

What is volunteer sampling?

People offer to take part usually in response to an advertisement.

What is systematic sampling?

Taking nth person from a list to create a sample.

What is stratified sampling?

A sample of participants produced by identifying subgroups according to their frequency in the population and selecting participants randomly from the subgroups.

Outline the advantages and disadvantages of random sampling

Unbiased selection and the sample should in theory be representative and therefore generalisable. However it can be impractical as it can be difficult to get full details and its not always representative.

What is the advantages and disadvantages of opportunity sampling?

The sample is easy to gather as you are using people who are available. It can be unrepresentative and so its not always generalisable.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of a self selected sample (opportunity.)

The sample is easy to gather as they volunteer themselves and so there's less chance of the screw you effect. It can be unrepresentative volunteers tend to be of a certain type. Demand characteristics as volunteers may be eager to please.

Advantages and disadvantages of a systematic sample

Unbias selection, increase chance of a representative sample however this is not always the cavelike choosing every 10th house but a young person could live in every 10th house.

Outline the advantages and disadvantages of a stratified sample

It's representative and unbiased however it can be difficult you need knowledge of the characteristics of the target population and it can be time consuming.

What does the experimental method allow us to do?

The experimental method allows us to manipulate one variable to see if it Hasan affect on another. A variable is anything that can change.

What is the independent variable?

The independent variable is the variable being manipulated.

What is the dependent variable?

The dependent variable is the one we measure.

Can the experimental method show cause and effect?

Yes the experimental method can show cause and effect in fact it is the only way a psychologist can show cause and effect due to a high degree of control.

Is the experimental method scientific?

Yes it is the most systematic and objective way to observe, record and describe events and allows for control over variable.

What is an extraneous variable.

An extraneous variable is a variable other than the independent variable that might effect the dependent variable.

What are the types of extraneous/confounding variables?

Participant variables - are characteristics of an individual which might influence the outcome of the study like age.

Situational variables - are variables to do with the situation which might affect behaviour like the time of day these can be controlled by using standardised procedures and instructions to ensure all participants have the same experience.

Demand characteristics - are any aspects of a study which has influence on participants to behave or answer in a way that they think is expected of them. If a participant deliberately tries to spoil the experiment this is called the screw you effect. Demand characteristics can be controlled by deception and the single blind method.

Investigator effects - are anything the investigator does which has an affect on a participants performance like how they ask questions. These can be controlled through using the double blind method.

What is a lab experiment?

Lab experiments are conducted in a special controlled environment where variables can be carefully controlled. Participants are aware they are taking part in an experiment although they may not know the true aims of the study.

What are the key features a lab experiment?

Conducted in an artificial environment. High degree of control, the experimenter can manipulate the independent variable and measure the effect of the dependent variable, they tend to be reliable and they allow for replication.

What is a field experiment and what are its key features?

Field experiments are conducted in a natural environment, the researcher manipulates the independent variable however participants may not know that they are taking part in a study.

Conducted in a natural environment.

Allows for a degree of control however this is reduced.

Allows the experimenter to manipulate an independent variable and measure the effect on the dependent variable.

What is a natural/quasi experiment and what are the key features?

The independent variable is not manipulated it occurs naturally. Quasi no control over the independent variable. Natural little control over the independent variable.

The independent variable occurs naturally.

No control over the independent variable.

The experimenter measures the dependent variable.

What is an independent measures design and what are the advantages and disadvantages?

A n independent measures design is when you use a different group of participants in each condition.

It overcomes order effects however participant variables, you are not comparing like with like, it's costly and time consuming.

What is a repeated measures design and what are the advantages and disadvantages?

A repeated measures design you use the same participants in each condition.

Reduces participant variables, you need fewer participants so its quicker and cheaper. However You may have order effects and an increase chance of demand characteristics.

What is a matched pairs design and what are the advantages and disadvantages?

A matched pairs design involves using different paricipants in each condition but are similar to the participants in the other condition.

It overcomes order effects and participant variables however if one drops out you lose 2 participants and its time consuming and difficult.

How do we control design issues?

Counter balancing - change the order in which the tasks are given this reduces order effects and balances them out.

Random allocation - Randomly allocate participants to conditions it ensures an equal chance of being assigned to any condition this reduces participant variables.

Randomisation - is where materials are presented in random orders this reduces order effects.

Single blind technique - participants don't know the research aims or the conditions they are placed in this reduces demand characteristics.

Double blind technique - neither the experimenter or the participant know what condition the participant is in this reduces investigator effects, demand characteristics, situational factors and participant factors.

Standardised procedure - keep everything the same for all participants expect the independent variable this reduces investigator effects and situational variables.

What is ii included in a research hypotheses?

It must be a precise testable statement of prediction, it must include the independent variable and dependent variable and include the word significant.

What is a directional (one tailed) hypotheses?

A directional hypotheses predicts the direction of a difference between groups like saying group A will perform significantly better on a memory task than group B.

What is a non directional (two tailed) hypotheses?

A non directional hypotheses is a hypothesis which only predicts there will be a significant difference between groups. It is often used when there's no previous research in the area.

What is the null hypothesis?

The null hypothesis predicts that will not be any any difference between groups. It always written after you have written an alternate hypothesis.

Why do we write a null hypothesis?

We need to allow for the fact that the effect we expect to see may not happen. It still needs to be precise and testable, mention the independent variable and dependent variable and include the word significant.

A type 1 error is where the researcher accepts the alternate hypothesis when they should have accepted the null hypothesis (false positive.)

A type 2 error is where the researcher accepts the null hypothesis when they should have accepted the research hypothesis (false negative.)

What are the key features of a case study?

In depth investigation into one person or a small group.

Investigate naturally occurring events.

Can be longitudinal or retrospective.

The researcher gathers a range of information.

A range of methods are used to collect information known as triangulation of methods.

Strengths and weaknesses of case studies

It's useful in situations were it unethical to manipulate the independent variable. Reduced social desirability and demand characteristics as information is gathered from many sources. Longitudinal. High ecological validity. In depth quantitative data. Useful unique cases.

If retrospective you have to rely on memory which can be unreliable. Time consuming if it's longitudinal. Not generalisable. Researcher bias. Difficult to replicate.

What is necessary for observations?

All observers to know exactly what they are observing.

They need a system for categorising and recording information.

More than one observer.

Define inter rate reliability

Inter rate reliability refers to the extent to which observers observe and rate the same behaviour in the same way it should be at least 80%.

What is a naturalistic observation?

When the observer observes participants in their natural environment like children in a creche.

Strengths and weaknesses of naturalistic observations

High ecological, participants can be unaware which reduced demand characteristics and public places don't need informed consent. No control over extraneous variables and observers could be identified and can be unethical.

What is a controlled experiment?

A controlled observation takes place in a controlled environment which allows control over variables.

Strengths and weaknesses of controlled observations.

Increase in reliability, record behaviour openly and extraneous variables can be controlled. Low in ecological validity and demand characteristics.

What is a structured observation?

Structured observations use pre determined categories of behaviour known as a coding system which should be objective.

Where observations are made at regular intervals and coded. like every 30 seconds for 5 minutes.

Strengths and weaknesses of time sampling

Easier to record data snd increase chance of reliability. Reduces validity as you may miss behaviours.

Recording specific occurrences of predetermined behaviours every time they occur continuously throughout the observation period.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of event sampling?

Increase in validity as you're less likely to miss a behaviours its continuously recorded. Difficult to record all behaviour so some may be missed which reduces the reliability and validity.

Strengths and weaknesses of structured observations

Easier to record data which increases the reliability of the data. Reduced validity as fixed behavioural categories.

What are unstructured observations?

When the observer records everything it may be difficult to avoid bias by focusing on what you want or expect to happen.

Strengths and weaknesses of unstructured observations

Valid as you record all behaviours. Difficult to achieve reliability, you may miss some behaviours which reduces the validity and you can't compare observations.

What are participant and non participant observations?

A participant observation is when the observer acts a part of the group being watched. Whereas non participant observation the observer does not become pert of the group being observed.

Strengths and weaknesses of participant observation

Ability to record and monitor behaviour in closer detail. Difficult to record data reduced reliability if participants become aware demand characteristics.

Strengths and weaknesses of non participant observations

Easier to record behaviour. They may miss discretions behaviour reducing validity.

What are cover and overt observations?

Overt is where the participants know they are being observed whereas with covert the participants are unaware they are being observed.

Strengths and weaknesses of covert observations

Reduced demand characteristics. Unethical.

Strengths and weaknesses of overt observations

Ethical and easier to record behaviour. Demand characteristics.

What are the key features of observations?

A systematic measurement of occurring behaviour.

It can be conducted in a controlled environment or naturalistic.

It can be structured or unstructured.

If structured the researcher decides what behaviour they want to record and produce a coding system.

A small-scale version (practice) of the real research often carried out before the full-scale research project begins. A small sample, quick, easy to conduct, inexpensive.

Why do we use pilot studies?

They are used to check the research works as it is intended to. Are there any demand characteristics in the study? Are the instructions clear? Are the resources adequate? Are there any extraneous variables that could affect the results?

Pilot studies improve validity through checking for demand characteristics and extraneous variables.

Reliability is improved through allowing us to check instructions are clear.

What are the characteristics of a normal distribution?

Symmetry at the mean value, 50% of data to the left and 50%

to the right of mean, the curve end point/tails meet the X axis and the shape should be a bell curve.

What does the normal distribution curve tell us?

Where the mean score lies. Distance off each standard deviation from the mean. These are the same for all normal

distributions. Can be used to help show whether data is normally distributed or skewed.

A positive skew tells us the majority are low scoring while a negative skew says the majority are high scores.

How to conduct an observation?

Develop a general aim, conduct a pilot study, construct a check list and decide how you will sample behaviour than collate data, display results and draw conclusions.

What is reliability and validity in an observation?

Reliability in an observation means that behaviour is recorded consistently. Validity means whether we are measuring what we claim to be measuring in an observation it can be to with whether we are recoding behaviour that people display in everyday life.

How to improve validity in an observation?

Reduce demand characteristics by observing covertly and Carry out a pilot study to check behavioural categories.

How to check for reliability in an observation?

You can check for inter rater reliability by having 2 or more observers observe the same thing and compare their observation a good study has 80% agreement.

How to improve reliability of an observation?

Observer training and practice.

Why is the self report method useful?

It can obtain peoples beliefs, thoughts and feelings towards something. It consists of both questionnaires and interviews.

How is the self report method used?

The self report method is used experimentally or non experimentally.

Open questions are questions in which participants respond with as much as they want in response to a question this. produces qualitative data.

Advantages and disadvantages of open questions

They produce qualitative data which is detailed and can tell us why. They are time consuming to complete which may result in a low completion rate and analyse.

What are closed questions?

Closed questions are questions in which the participants have fixed choices of answers, answers are predetermined by the researcher. This produces quantitive data.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of closed questions?

They produce quantitive data which is easy to analyse and compare. Responses lack detail and they have a lower validity as participants are forced to pick an answer which may not be their true answer.

What ethical issues need to be considered for self reports?

Informed consent - participants should be aware if the nature the questionnaire and any sensitive questions so that they can give informed consent.

Right too with draw - it must be clear that participants can withdraw at anytime or miss any question or withdraw their data after it has been collected.

Confidentiality -We must never reveal who said what.

Anonymity the researchers don't know who said what.

Protection - participants shouldn't feel embraced or uncomfortable when answering questions. If we are conducting research on a sensitive or embarrassing subject we must take care over informed consent and confidentiality.

A questionnaire is a set of written questions. It is useful in gathering information from a large number of people. To produce accurate results a questionnaire must be worded carefully. The construction of a reliable questionnaire is difficult because the slightest change in the way the questions are worded can distort the results.

What are the key features of a questionnaire?

A questionnaire is a set of pre determined questions.

Questionnaires are designed to collect attitudes, beliefs and opinions on a given topic.

Questionnaires should include a range of open and closed questions.

Strengths and weaknesses of questionnaires

Allow us to measure attitudes, beliefs and opinions. Questions are standardised, qualitative data, you can collect a large amount of data quickly and ease of analysis. Social desirability, untruthfulness, low response rate, interpretation of questions and lacks flexibility.

Interviews are face to face or over the phone conservations. They can be structured, use pre determined questions or unstructured informal chats. They can be recorded for later in depth analysis and provide qualitative data.

What are structured interviews and what are the strengths and weaknesses?

Structured interviews use a set of fixed questions that are the same for all participants.

Quick to complete and easy to replicate so you can test for reliability. Not flexible. Open questions can be time consuming and closed questions lack detail. Don't allow for a follow up.

What are semi structured interviews and the strengths and weaknesses?

Semi structured interviews use a fixed set of questions but allow the investigator to introduce new questions.

Allows for some comparison of responses and allows for flexibility to explore topics further. Not totally standardised, open questions are time consuming to complete and analyse.

Unstructured interviews and their strengths and weaknesses

Unstructured interviews may have a set of discussion topics, but are less constrained about how the conservation goes.

Questions can be adapted depending on the participants response. Qualitative data can be collected through open questions. However unstructured interviews are time consuming to complete and analyse, difficult to compare responses as questions aren't standardised.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of interviews in general?

Qualitative and quantitive data may be collected and you might obtain more information if a relationship is built.

Social desirability, more commitment is needed and the interviewer needs training.

What are they key features of an interview?

They gather more detailed information and are a more natural and flexible approach to questioning. They have certain topics they want to explore but still involve the participants giving information about their views, attitudes and beliefs on a topic. Interviews can be structured, semi structured or unstructured and they can use open and/or closed questions.

How do we know if we have found something significant?

We find the significance level this is the chance of something having happened due to the independent variable. We have to determine whether the results are significant enough to be due to the manipulation of the independent variable.

Why do we use a statistical test?

It gives us a calculated value for data which we can then check to see the probability of our results having occurred due to the experiment.

What should the chance level be?

The chance level should be 95% we call this p≤0.05.

Where the researcher wrongfully accepts the experimental hypothesis so we believe there is a difference when there wasn't. This is sometimes called a false positive or an error of optimism.

A type 2 error is where you wrongfully accept the null hypothesis meaning we believe there is no difference where there actually isthmus is also called a false negative or an error of pessimism.

When do we carry out a correlational study?

We carry out a correlational study when we want to see if there's a relationship between two variables but this will not establish cause and effect.

What is a positive correlation?

A positive correlation is where the variables move in the same direction for example as one increases so does the other.

What is a negative correlation?

A negative correlation is where the variables move in opposite directions so as one increases the other decreases.

What are the two variables being correlated called?

How to write hypothesis for correlational studies

Writing hypotheses for correlational studies is the same as in an experiment but we say whether or not there will be a significant correlation instead of significant difference and in directional alternate hypothesis was say whether it will be a positive or negative correlation.

How are correlational studies represented?

On scattergrams to do this all data must be in a quantitive form which can be done by given it a quantitive value.

What is a correlational co efficient?

To accurately show the strength of a correlation we conduct a statistical test to calculate the correlational coefficient we use Spearman's Rho and Pearson's r. For a high correlation we would expect a high correlation coefficient this is 0.8 whether its positive or negative is a strong correlation. + indicates a positive correlation and - indicates a negative correlation.

What are the strengths and weaknesses of correlational studies?

Can make predictions about relationships, can be used when it's impractical or unethical to use an experiment, results can be plotted visually, replicable meaning we can check for reliability and it provides information about patterns.

Do not show cause and effect, there can be difficulties in quantifying data, doesn't allow for complex relationships, the relationship revealed may be misleading and extraneous variables.

What are the key features of a correlation?

A correlation measures the relationship between 2 variables, the relationship can be positive or negative, the relationship can be strong or weak and a correlation can be represented on a scattergram and analysed using Spearman's Rho or Pearsons r.

What is a content analysis?

A content analysis is where the researcher analysis the content of something to transform qualitative data into quantitative. It can be used to analyse the content of media like t.v adverts. Content analysis is an indirect observation because e don't observer people rather the artefacts they produce.

What is the process of content analysis?

The process of content analysis is systematic and requires a coding system to categorise analysed material.

The researcher decides what material to sample, the themes that might arise from the materials and then creates a coding system based on these themes. A sample of the material is collected and analysed using the coding units. By counting the frequency each unit appears we obtain quantitative data and a statical analysis can be carried out.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of content analysis?

Content analysis is easy to carry out, easy to check reliability as coding units are used, high in ecological as materials aren't created for the study and it's not time consuming.

Content analysis tells you what but not why so cause and effect can not be established and there may be limited data sets depending on what your study.

What is thematic analysis?

Thematic analysis is a form of qualitative analysis. It involves making summaries of data and identifying themes and categories.

The process of thematic analysis

The researcher comes up with a hypothesis, they then collect data through interviews and case studies. Detailed transcripts are then made, the researcher familiarises themselves with the notes and tries to identify any common themes, they use direct quotes to support they findings.

Validity is the extent to which something measures what is claims to measure.

What is internal and external validity?

Internal validity - is related to which actually happens in the study. Whether the independent variable has had on affect on the dependent variable or whether this was caused by confounding variables.

External validity - refers to whether the findings can be generalised beyond the present study.

What are the types of internal validity?

Face validity - refers to the extent to which a measure appears on the surface to measure what it's suppose to measure.

Concurrent validity - refers to the extent to which test results conform with those on some other valid measure taken at the same time. Whether a test gives the same results as another established test which both claim to measure the same behaviour.

Temporal validity - if the study passes the test of time can it be repeated at a later date and similar results be obtained.

What are the types of external validity?

Population validity - refers to the extent to which the findings can be generalised to other populations of people.

Ecological validity - refers to the extent to which findings can be generalised beyond the present study to real life.

How to improve each type of validity

If a new method does not correspond to an established measure team it and the reassess this should raise concurrent validity.

Single blind technique where the participant is unaware of the condition they are placed in to reduce demand characteristics which increases internal validity.

Double blind technique neither the participant nor the researcher know what condition the participant is in to reduce demand characteristics and experimenter bias it increases internal validity.

Eye ball test by experts to increase face validity an expert in the field of research judges the content of the measure on a surface level to ensure the test appropriate.

Large and careful sampling increases population validity.

To improve temporal validity we periodically replicate the research if we get similar results each time it has temporal validity.

To improve ecological validity we replicate research in different setting a d diverse methods

Reliability refers to the consistency of a measuring tool.

What is internal reliability and external reliability?

Internal reliability - is how consistently a measure measures within itself often checked using the split half method.

External reliability - how consistently a measure measures over time or between people this is often checked using the test retest and inter rater reliability.

How do we check the reliability of self reports?

To check the internal reliability we use the split half method the test is split in two and participants complete both halves and their responses are compared.

To assess the external reliability of self report we use the test-retest method we give the participants the test twice over a period of time and compared to see if the results are similar. Inter rater reliability if the interviewers have 80% agreement they coded behaviour similarly then we have external reliability.

Observations and reliability

We do not check the reliability of observations through the test resets method instead we use inter rater reliability which refers to the extent to which different observers are able to rate the same behaviour in the same way. This is a type of external reliability.

Experimental method and reliability

Lab experiments have a high degree of control, standardised procedure because the experimenter can treat all participants the same and ensure consistency in relation to measuring the dependent variable. Scientific measuring tools like MRI's can be used which are reliable.

Field experiments have less control and so are less reliable.

To check reliability of the experimental method we use the test-retest method to test external reliability.

What order is a report written in?

Title, abstract, Introduction, Method (sample, design, materials and procedure), results, discussion, references and appendices.

A concise but informative sentence which lets the reader know what the report is about it's usually no more than 13 words.

A brief summary no longer than 200 words, it will include the aim, method, sample, results and conclusions. It gives an insight into the journal.

The introduction outlines previous research in the area and explains the aims of the present research and contains the hypothesis.

Different research journals do this section differently however it usually contains the subsections; sample - information regarding how the participants were obtained along with their characteristics like age, design - information about the experimental design and allocation of participants, materials - materials used and procedure, what happened in the study.

What is the results section?

Where you analyse and describe what you found. It contains both descriptive and inferential statistics. The alternate hypothesis will be rejected or accepted likewise will the null.

What is the discussion section?

Results are interpreted and conclusions related back to previous research. Findings will relate to the hypothesis and aims of the study. Unexpected findings will be discussed. There may be an evaluation of the research and future research may be proposed.

What is the reference's section of a report?

A list in alphabetical order of all the research that has been referred too. This helps other psychologists look up research used.

This contains calculations, instructions, any questionnaires and memory lists.

What are the features of a science?

Objective - Research should unbiased it shouldn't be affected by the researchers opinions or feelings. This can be achieved through studying observable, measurable concrete concepts and by using methods that aren't open to interpretation.

Empiricism - evidence should be gathered from direct observation, physical evidence and quantitative observations in a controlled setting.

Replicability - The ability to repeat research and achieve the same findings. It helps show temporal validity. To get this we use a high degree of control and a standardised procedure.

Falsifiability - it should be possible to refute findings, we shouldn't expect to find evidence for a theory.

Paradigm - An agreed subject matter and set off procedures, shared assumptions and methods. When evidence goes against the current paradigm a new replaces it this is a paradigm shift.

The construction and hypothesis testing

An observation is made, a theory and hypothesis is developed, a hypothesis is tested using empirical methods and results are analysed to evaluate whether or not the hypothesis was supported.

Creating a theory by observing empirical evidence.

Deriving a testable theory and forming a hypothesis which is observed.

Can we be certain a theory is true?

No even if a hypothesis is consistently supported by empirical findings the theory is still not certain to be true there could always be an exception that has not been found. Scientists should therefore develop and test as many hypothesis as possible so we can be more confident and the theory can develop into general laws.

When a theory has been tested and re tested and hasn't been disproved its developed into laws and principles. Scientific laws are universal and invariable. Internally valid controlled research allows us to infer cause and effect and create laws.

Kuhn claimed that Poppers view was too idealistic, and that scientists tend to cling to existing theories even in the face of contradictory evidence science is therefore resistant to change. A paradigm is an agreed subject matter, set of procedures and share assumptions.

What are Kuhn's 3 stages in the development of a science?

Pre science - a wide range of opinions and no paradigm.

Normal science - one paradigm is dominant and research seeks to support it.

Revolutionary science - evidence mounts against the dominant paradigm and a new paradigm becomes dominant paradigm shift.

Peer review is a quality assurance process, an evaluation of new research. It's completed to ensure that new research has been properly carried outing to review the impact of any findings. The process depends on the publication.

Is deception allowed in psychology research quizlet?

What is the rule for deceiving participants in a psychological research study?

What are 3 overriding ethical issues in psychology?

What may be considered a disadvantage of using deception in psychological research?