In which of the following sentences is context most helpful in understanding the italicized word?

Which of the following students is demonstrating the specific type of phonological awareness known as phonemic awareness?

a student who, after hearing the word hat, can orally identify that it ends with the sound /t/
Phonemic awareness is the recognition that spoken words are made up of phonemes—the discrete speech sounds of a language. Identifying the final sound (or phoneme) in a word (C) demonstrates phonemic awareness. A, B, and D are incorrect because the skills described (identifying the sound corresponding to a letter, recognizing rhyming words, and counting syllables in a word, respectively) can be performed without the ability to distinguish separate phonemes in a spoken word.

A kindergarten teacher could best determine if a child has begun to develop phonemic awareness by asking the child to:

say the word cat, then say the first sound the child hears in the word.
Phonemic awareness, a type of phonological awareness, is the recognition that spoken words are made up of phonemes, the discrete speech sounds of a language. Segmenting the first sound in a spoken word is one of the first phonemic awareness skills to develop and therefore B is an effective informal procedure for assessing phonemic awareness in the beginning stages. A, C, and D are incorrect because performing the tasks described (counting words, recognizing letters and letter names, recognizing rhyming words) does not require phonemic awareness.

As students begin to read, the ability to blend phonemes orally contributes to their reading development primarily because it helps students:

use knowledge of letter-sound correspondence to decode words.
Phonemic blending is the ability to combine a sequence of speech sounds (phonemes) together to form a word. Beginning readers use their skill in phonemic blending and their knowledge of letter-sound correspondence to sound out and blend the sounds of simple printed words. A, C, and D are incorrect because they describe literacy skills that are unrelated to phonemic blending.

A teacher holds up a series of familiar objects, asking students to name each object and isolate the final sound they hear. This type of activity would be most appropriate for a student who:

needs help developing phonemic segmentation skills.
In the activity described, students are asked to isolate and pronounce separately the final sound, or phoneme, of a familiar word. Learning to isolate the final sound in a word is a step toward mastering phonemic segmentation, an important phonemic awareness skill that supports literacy development in English. B, C, and D are incorrect because they are related to decoding print, which is not addressed in this activity.

Phonemic awareness contributes most to the development of phonics skills in beginning readers by helping them:

identify in spoken language separate sounds that can be mapped to letters.
English is an alphabetic language—that is, a language in which the letters and letter patterns in written words can be mapped to the phonemes of the spoken words. Phonemic awareness, the recognition of the phonemes in spoken words, and the ability to segment and blend phonemes are critical to learning to apply knowledge of these letter patterns and letter-sound correspondences (i.e., phonics knowledge) to decode and encode printed words. A and D are incorrect because they describe characteristics of phonics that are not related to phonemic awareness. B is incorrect because counting syllables in a written word does not require phonemic awareness

Which of the following first-grade students has attained the highest level of phonemic awareness?

a student who, after hearing the word hot and the sound /ĭ/, can substitute /ĭ/ for /ŏ/ to make the word hit

Phonemic awareness, the ability to distinguish and manipulate the phonemes in spoken words, is a type of phonological awareness. Reading research indicates that phonological and phonemic awareness skills develop along a continuum from basic to higher-level skills, and that phoneme substitution is a more difficult, or higher-level, skill. Substituting the sound /ĭ/ for /ŏ/ in the word hot to make the word hit is an example of phoneme substitution. B and D are incorrect because phonemic awareness is not required to perform the phonological awareness skills described. C is incorrect because recognizing alliterative words—words that begin with the same phoneme—is a phonological awareness skill that precedes development of advanced phonemic awareness skills, including phoneme substitution.

Asking students to listen to a word (e.g., same) and then tell the teacher all the sounds in the word is an exercise that would be most appropriate for students who:

have a relatively high level of phonemic awareness
The procedure described—presenting students with a spoken word and having them say all the sounds in the word—is an example of a phoneme-segmentation task. Reading research indicates that phonological and phonemic awareness skills develop along a continuum from basic to higher-level skills, and effective instruction targets skills at a student's current level of development. Segmenting phonemes is a relatively high-level phonemic awareness skill; thus, this exercise would be most appropriate for students who have already achieved a relatively high level of phonemic awareness (C). For this reason, A is incorrect. B and D are incorrect because these responses describe skills at later stages of literacy development

A kindergarten teacher asks a small group of students to repeat after her. First, she says the word grape and then pronounces it as gr and ape. Next, she says the word take and then pronounces it as t and ake. This activity is likely to promote the students' phonemic awareness primarily by:Term

encouraging them to divide words into onsets and rimes.
In the activity described, the teacher provides direct instruction in segmenting single-syllable words into onset and rime—that is, into the initial consonant sounds of the word (the onset) and the rest of the word (the rime). Promoting student mastery of onset-rime segmentation prepares students for learning phonemic awareness skills. A is incorrect because the segmenting activity focuses on single-syllable words and does not help students distinguish syllable boundaries. C is incorrect because the segmenting activity does not focus on phonemes, so it does not help students distinguish between different types of phonemes (e.g., vowels and consonants). D is incorrect because the activity is oral and does not present students with information about how the sounds in spoken words relate to the letters in printed words

A teacher shows a student pictures of familiar objects. As the teacher points to the first picture, she asks the student to name the object in the picture. Next, she asks the student to count on his fingers the number of sounds he makes as he says the word again. This activity is most likely to promote which of the following?

phonemic awareness skills
In the activity described, the student is prompted to say a word and then count the number of sounds, or phonemes, in the word as he pronounces the word again. By focusing attention on the individual component sounds of the word, the student is practicing phonemic segmentation, an important phonemic awareness skill in the continuum of phonological awareness skills. A and C, which concern the recognition of letter-sound relationships, are incorrect because the activity described does not require the student to use letter knowledge. D is incorrect because the activity does not require the student to use word identification skills, which concern decoding printed words.

A beginning-level English Language Learner can consistently blend individual phonemes to make simple English words composed of two or three phonemes but is having difficulty blending the sounds of familiar single-syllable words composed of four phonemes (e.g., clip, trap, spin). Which of the following questions would be most important for the first-grade teacher to consider when addressing the needs of this student?

Does the student's primary language have consonant blends?
While there are approximately 100 speech sounds, or phonemes, used in human language, only a portion of these is used in any given language, and the set varies across languages. Also, each language has its own constraints on permissible phoneme combinations (e.g., consonant clusters, vowel sequences). For example, English allows consonant blends such as [kl], [tr], and [sp] both in initial and medial positions in words, while some languages do not allow them at all or do not allow them in the initial position, which is where they appear in the sample words clip, trap, and spin. English Language Learners frequently have difficulty detecting in a new language phonemes or phoneme combinations that do not occur in their primary language. A and D are incorrect because the student does not need to understand the meaning of a word or know a cognate of the word in the primary language in order to segment or blend the word's phonemes. C is incorrect because the example words contain only short vowel sounds.

A fourth-grade student reads on grade level and consistently scores very high on spelling tests that are part of weekly word study activities. However, the student often misspells the same words, and other familiar words, in everyday writings. The following table shows examples of typical errors the student makes on class writing assignments and in informal notes to friends.

The student's overall spelling performance suggests that the student most likely has a weakness in which of the following foundational skills?

segmenting and sequencing phonemes in words
An analysis of the "typical" spelling errors from the student's everyday writing reveals that the student transposes letters in two words (ir in girl, the second nd in independent), omits letters in two words (s in instead, p in interrupted), and repeats letters in one word (ed in decided). These types of errors, coupled with the information that the student performs very well on formal spelling assessments of the same words, suggests that the student overrelies on memorization for spelling. Thus, when spelling words in everyday contexts, the student may not pay attention to the sounds and sound sequences of words, or perhaps the student's phonemic segmentation skills are not automatic. Neither the structure of the sample words nor the examples of the student's spelling errors provide evidence that the student has difficulties with detecting syllable boundaries (A), blending letter-sounds to make words (B), or discriminating between a word's root morpheme and affixes (C).

A preschool child picks up an unfamiliar book, opens it to the end, points to the text, and begins to "pretend read" the story. These behaviors suggest that the child most likely:

has developed an understanding that print carries meaning.
The child's behavior, "pretend reading" when pointing to the text or printed portion of a page in a book, indicates an understanding that printed text represents meaningful language. A is incorrect because the child begins reading from the end of the book, which indicates a lack of basic book-handling skills. B is incorrect because the child does not point to or decode the separate words of the printed text but only "pretend reads" the story. D is incorrect because the child does not use gestures to demonstrate knowledge of print directionality

A preschool child draws a stick figure and makes some unintelligible scribbles around it. When she shows it to her teacher, she points to the scribbles and says, "This says 'I love mommy.'" This behavior suggests that the child most likely:

has grasped the idea that the function of print is distinct from that of pictures.
By pointing to the letter-like scribbles when reporting to the teacher what the page "says"—the verbal message encoded on the page—the child distinguishes between print and other graphic material. This suggests that the child understands that the function of print is to encode an utterance that can be decoded as meaningful speech. B is incorrect because the description does not indicate that the child has developed knowledge of individual speech sounds in words, that is, phonemic awareness. Thus A and C are incorrect because phonemic awareness is a fundamental prerequisite for understanding the alphabetic principle and the concept of letter-sound correspondences.

At the end of each school day, a preschool teacher encourages the children to talk about the day's events. As the children describe each event, the teacher writes it on large block paper. Afterward, the teacher reads the list back to the class. This activity would contribute to the children's literacy development primarily by promoting their:

awareness that speech can be represented by writing.
In the activity described, the teacher demonstrates to preschool children that their spoken utterances can be recorded verbatim in writing and that this written record can later be decoded in spoken form. A is incorrect because the teacher's strategy does not demonstrate relationships between the individual sounds in spoken words and the letters used to represent the words in writing. C is incorrect because the teacher's strategy does not highlight individual words or provide explicit instruction in segmenting sentences into words. D is incorrect because the teacher does not highlight individual syllables or provide explicit instruction in the component syllables of spoken words.

A kindergarten teacher hangs labels on key objects in the classroom, puts up posters that include words and captions, and always has a big book on display for the children's use. This kind of classroom environment is most likely to help promote children's:

development of an awareness of print.
Print awareness encompasses a developing understanding of print concepts and the writing system, an understanding of relationships between oral language and print, and familiarity with ways that literate adults interact with and make use of printed materials and writing. The classroom described includes several elements that can be effectively used to promote print awareness at the kindergarten level. The presence of printed labels, posters, and big books provides exposure to print and the teacher can use these materials to model print functions. Big books can be used effectively as part of explicit instruction in print concepts and book-handling skills. A is incorrect because phonemic awareness—recognition that words are composed of phonemes—is not directly promoted by a print-rich environment. B and C are incorrect because simply exposing children to print does not directly promote word recognition skills.

A preschool teacher is reading a story to his class. As he reads, he holds the book so the children can see the words and pictures while his finger follows the line of print. This activity would contribute to the children's reading development primarily by:

developing their awareness of left-to-right directionality.
By following the line of print with his finger while reading, the teacher provides students with a visual demonstration that print is read from left to right. A, B, and D are incorrect because the teacher does not explicitly identify or indicate component letters, phonemes, or letter-sound correspondences related to the text.

Pointing out the title, beginning, middle, and end of a book to a group of preschool children before reading the book aloud to them contributes to their reading development primarily by promoting their

development of book-handling skills.
The instruction the teacher provides before reading aloud, in conjunction with how the teacher holds and proceeds through the book during reading, helps beginning readers learn how to hold a book with the front cover facing up and the spine on the left, and then how to move through the pages from front to back. A is incorrect because the teacher does not show students lines of text or indicate to them how to track print during reading. C is incorrect because the teacher does not attempt to access students' background knowledge, or schema, related to the text. D is incorrect because the activity does not focus on teaching students strategies for comprehending the text.

Which of the following strategies would be most effective in promoting kindergarten children's ability to recognize and name letters of the alphabet?

The teacher says the name of a letter while the children each trace its shape on a cutout letter.
Letter naming entails an ability both to distinguish between letters and to associate particular letter shapes with their names. The activity described in A simultaneously activates visual, auditory, kinesthetic, and tactile sensory pathways in learning letter shapes and associating these shapes with their names. Research suggests that such multisensory techniques are effective for this purpose. B, C, and D are incorrect because the activities described do not focus on one or both subskills required in letter naming. The activity described in B exposes students to letter shapes without promoting students' ability to distinguish the letters from one another or associate each letter shape with a letter name. The activities described in C and D do not present students with information about letter shapes or letter names.

Having kindergarten children practice tracing the letters of the alphabet in sand is most appropriate for children who are having difficulty:

developing letter formation skills.
The activity described has children use arm movements and highly textured material to heighten their awareness of letter shapes and the sequence of strokes for forming letters. The activity is effective for students who are having difficulty with letter formation because it simultaneously activates visual, kinesthetic, and tactile sensory pathways in learning letter shapes and associating these shapes with their names. Research suggests that such multisensory techniques are effective for this purpose. A is incorrect because this activity does not address the relationship between the alphabetic writing system of English and the sounds of spoken language. B is incorrect because the function of print is not addressed in this activity. C is incorrect because oral language is not addressed in this activity

A preschool teacher shows a group of children pictures of everyday objects. Below each picture is printed the letter of the alphabet that corresponds to the word's initial sound. As the teacher points to each picture, she names the object, then she points to the letter underneath it and says the sound it makes. The teacher invites the children to repeat the sound with her. This activity is likely to contribute to the children's reading development primarily by:

demonstrating that phonemes are represented by letters.
In the series of steps described (i.e., pronouncing a word, pointing to the letter that represents the initial sound of the word, and saying the sound the letter makes), the teacher demonstrates that familiar words have component sounds that can be pronounced in isolation, and that letters of the alphabet represent the component sounds (phonemes) of spoken words in print. A is incorrect because the teacher points out neither spoken nor written word boundaries in this lesson. B is incorrect because auditory discrimination entails comparing and distinguishing between two different sounds, whereas only a single sound is presented at a time in this lesson. C is incorrect because the teacher points out only the initial sound of each word and does not point out or discuss the remaining portion (the rime) of the word.

A kindergarten teacher wants to promote students' understanding of the alphabetic principle. Which of the following would be the most effective first step in a sequence of instruction designed to achieve this goal?

Talk with students about selected consonants using a series of posters that each feature one consonant and contain pictures of items whose initial phoneme demonstrates that consonant's sound.
Understanding the alphabetic principle entails the recognition that letters and letter patterns used in writing an alphabetic language correspond to the sounds in the spoken words of the language. The activity described in A would promote understanding of the relationship between letters and the initial sounds in familiar words. Focusing on the initial phoneme in these words reflects an understanding that segmenting an initial consonant is a relatively easy phonemic awareness skill that beginning readers have likely mastered and thus is appropriate to use in early instruction on the alphabetic principle. B is incorrect because the activity does not relate letters to the sounds in words. C is incorrect because it does not focus on the letters in a text or relate them to discrete sounds in words. D is incorrect because the individual sounds are not isolated or related to the letters in the printed word.

A second-grade teacher regularly reviews spelling patterns previously taught. The teacher also provides students with multiple opportunities to read and write connected text that features words containing the target spelling patterns and to engage in word sorts focused on previously taught spelling patterns. These types of activities are likely to promote students' reading proficiency primarily by developing their:

reading fluency with respect to accuracy.
In this scenario, the teacher uses both reading and writing activities to reinforce previously taught spelling patterns. Research has established that encoding and decoding are reciprocal processes and that spelling knowledge can contribute to word-reading accuracy. Accuracy is a key component of reading fluency. A is incorrect because the focus of the activity is on word recognition, not vocabulary acquisition. C is incorrect because the activities described do not relate to morphological awareness. Sight words are words that do not follow regular spelling patterns or that contain phonics elements that have not yet been taught, which makes D incorrect.

Which of the following best describes the relationship between word decoding and reading comprehension in a beginning reader's development?

Rapid automatic decoding skills help facilitate development of reading fluency and comprehension.
Reading research has shown that accurate decoding skills are a prerequisite to effective development of word-reading automaticity, which, in turn, is foundational to the development of reading fluency—that is, reading text accurately, at a rate that supports comprehension, and with speech-like phrasing and expressiveness. Furthermore, convergent research suggests that a lack of automatic decoding skills is a frequent cause of comprehension difficulties among students in the primary grades. A is incorrect because research indicates that poor decoding skills hamper comprehension and the development of reading comprehension skills. B and C are incorrect because being able to decode a text is foundational to understanding the text's meaning.

A teacher can most effectively support first graders' development of rapid automatic word recognition by first teaching students how to:

apply consistent phonics generalizations in common words.

Automaticity is the rapid recognition of a word without conscious attention to the decoding process. Research indicates that accurate decoding skills are a prerequisite to the development of, and readiness to benefit from instruction in, automatic word recognition. Applying consistent phonics generalizations to decode common words is a foundational decoding skill appropriate for beginning readers at the first-grade level. B is incorrect because a reliance on context clues for word identification is a frequent cause of inaccurate reading, so this strategy would not facilitate automatic word recognition. C is incorrect because dividing multisyllable words into constituent parts is an advanced skill typically taught after developing readers have achieved automaticity reading many single-syllable words. D is incorrect because looking up words in a dictionary is related to decoding only as a corrective strategy and does not present phonics patterns explicitly or systematically. It is therefore of limited effectiveness in developing accurate decoding skills and automaticity among beginning readers.

A second-grade teacher pairs students who are reading at approximately the same independent reading level for a partner-reading activity. During the activity, the two partners sit side by side and take turns reading aloud from a shared text. Over a period of several days, the partners read a large number of independent-level texts together. This activity is best designed to promote students':

development of reading rate and automaticity
Research has shown that rereading the same text several times builds comprehension and improves reading rate and automaticity with respect to the given text, but these gains do not necessarily transfer to other texts. The most effective way for students to improve reading rate and automaticity is to practice reading many texts written at their independent reading level (i.e., texts that they can read accurately). B is incorrect because, while improving one's reading rate may improve one aspect of prosody, it does not necessarily contribute to other aspects of prosody, such as appropriate phrasing and intonation. Clearly, the activity is not "best designed" to promote prosody. C is incorrect because the activity does not focus on developing students' comprehension skills and strategies. D is incorrect because the students are reading independent-level texts (i.e., texts that they can read with very high degrees of decoding accuracy and comprehension). Thus, it is unlikely that the texts contain "new" phonics elements (i.e., elements that have not yet been introduced to these students).

Which of the following strategies would be most effective in promoting second graders' decoding of multisyllable words?

encouraging students to compare the parts of new multisyllable words with known single-syllable words
By the second grade, students have typically learned to read a wide variety of syllable patterns in single-syllable words. Since most of the syllables in multisyllable words follow the same patterns as those in single-syllable words, the primary challenge for students just learning to decode multisyllable words is learning to recognize the words as a series of discrete syllables. This recognition allows students to apply their prior knowledge of syllable patterns to decoding longer words. The strategy described in C is effective because it focuses students' attention on recognizing the component syllables in these words. A is incorrect because reading predictable text is typically used with beginning readers and is not appropriate for teaching decoding of multisyllable words. B is incorrect because sounding out words letter by letter is a strategy beginning readers can use to decode very simple words with one-to-one letter-sound correspondences, but it is not an efficient strategy for decoding the complex multiletter phonics patterns typically encountered by second-grade readers. D is incorrect because practicing with flashcards—focusing on rapid recognition of words—would not be appropriate until students have learned to process all of the letters in target words systematically and can decode the words with a high degree of accuracy

According to basic principles of research-based, systematic phonics instruction, which of the following common English letter combinations would be most appropriate for a first-grade teacher to introduce first?

th
In research-based, systematic phonics instruction, phonics elements are introduced according to their utility for beginning readers, and therefore according to their frequency of use in words appearing in primary-grades texts. Among the letter combinations given, th occurs most frequently in such texts and therefore is among the very first letter combinations taught. A, B, and D are incorrect because these letter combinations appear significantly less frequently in primary-grades texts than th does.

A second-grade teacher administers spelling inventories periodically to help assess students' phonics knowledge. The following shows one student's performance on a spelling inventory at the beginning of the school year and again several months later.
The student's performance on the second administration of the spelling inventory indicates that the student made the most improvement in which of the following areas?

long and r-controlled vowels
Patterns of improvement across the assessments suggest the student has learned two conventional spelling patterns. First, by correctly spelling star and turn in the second assessment, the student demonstrates progress in spelling words with r-controlled vowels. Second, by learning to use the VCe long-vowel pattern to spell the words drive and peach, the student demonstrates knowledge of a conventional spelling pattern for long vowels. Although the student's spelling of peach in the second assessment is incorrect, it nevertheless demonstrates progress in learning conventional spelling patterns used in English. A, B, and C are incorrect because the student shows no change over time in the indicated spelling skills.

Which of the following provides the best rationale for incorporating spelling instruction into a first-grade reading program?

Spelling supports word recognition by helping students learn and retain common phonics patterns.
Research has shown that the development of spelling and phonics skills is reciprocal; when instruction in these two skills is aligned, development of each skill area is reinforced and enhanced. Thus, learning the spelling patterns of words reinforces learning of their phonics patterns and supports word recognition. A is incorrect because phonemic awareness and the phonological awareness skill of onset-rime segmentation precedes and contributes to students' spelling development, not the reverse as stated in A. B is incorrect because most words targeted in spelling instruction are not new to students but already part of their oral vocabulary. C is incorrect because spelling knowledge continually expands the range of students' decoding skills and does not limit or simplify the decoding process.

Which of the following statements best describes how oral vocabulary knowledge is related to the process of decoding written words?

A reader's oral vocabulary knowledge allows the reader to derive meaning as he or she decodes written words.
A reader uses decoding skills to derive the correct pronunciation of a phonically regular word, but the phonological form alone does not prompt understanding of the word's meaning. To understand the word's meaning, the reader must already have the word in her or his oral vocabulary. A is incorrect because decoding an unfamiliar word correctly does not provide the semantic information about the word required to add the word to a reader's oral vocabulary. C is incorrect because decoding is the process of identifying the spoken form of a word based on its printed form, which can be done without knowledge of the word's meaning. D is incorrect because in the early stages of reading development, oral language precedes development of decoding skills.

Read the sentence below; then answer the question that follows.
My family went to the circus last weekend. I liked the clowns the best. They were very funny.
A student makes several miscues when reading these sentences aloud. Which of the following miscues represents an error in decoding consonant blends?

saying bet for best

A consonant blend is a sequence of two or more consonants in a word, each of which represents a separate phoneme. For example, the sequence of consonants at the end of the word best represents the sequence of phonemes /s/ and /t/. A student who says bet for best is omitting the letter s, an error in decoding the consonant blend at the end of the word. The other responses are incorrect because these miscues are unrelated to decoding consonant blends. A is a whole-word omission. B represents an error decoding a diphthong. D is an omission of an entire syllable.

Which of the following sentences contains a pair of italicized words that differ from one another by one phoneme?

He took off his cap so that he could take a nap.
A phoneme is a phonological unit of language, a discrete speech sound in a particular language that native speakers of the language recognize as sufficient to distinguish between two phonologically similar but separate words. For example, the speech sounds /k/ and /n/ are phonemes in English because native English speakers who hear the pair of spoken forms /kăp/ and /năp/ regard them as distinct words. B is incorrect because the two identically spelled words bank (financial institution) and bank (land form abutting a river) are pronounced the same way; i.e., they contain the identical sequence of phonemes. C is incorrect because the two words differ by more than one phoneme. D is incorrect because although the pair of words, pale and pail , differ in their spelling, they are identical in their pronunciation; i.e., they contain the same phonemes

Which of the following students demon-strates variation in reading development that would require intervention focused on explicit phonics instruction?

a second-grade student who is adept at using context clues to identify words but has difficulty sounding out the letters in unfamiliar words
A second-grade student who lacks the fundamental skill of sounding out letters has phonics skills well below grade level and is at significant risk for reading failure. Thus, an appropriate intervention for this student would be explicit phonics instruction. A is incorrect because this student has not yet developed phonemic awareness, so an intervention in explicit phonics would be too advanced. B is incorrect because the student's ability to decode nonsense words demonstrates development of phonics skills. D is incorrect because a student who has attained fluency reads accurately and with comprehension, which is overwhelming evidence that the student has accurate decoding skills—including strong phonics skills.

A student who has mastered which of the following skills along the phonological awareness continuum is best prepared to begin explicit phonics instruction?

being able to segment and blend a word's phonemes
Research indicates that phonemic awareness skills, particularly phonemic blending (i.e., combining a sequence of speech sounds to form a word), are prerequisite skills to effective phonics instruction. A is incorrect because the skill described indicates phonemic awareness in the early stages, and not the fully developed skills that are prerequisite for instruction in phonics skills. B and C are incorrect because the phonological awareness skills described develop before the development of phonemic awareness, which is a prerequisite to phonics instruction.

Use the information below to answer the question that follows. A teacher poses the following question to fourth-grade students. What words can you think of that have the word "act" in them? Using student responses, the teacher creates the following web on the board. This technique is likely to be most helpful for enhancing the students' awareness of:

morphemic structure.
The web shown shows a circle with the base word act in the center and connected to four word lists that are categorized according to different morphological processes—clockwise, adding suffixes or inflectional endings, adding prefixes, adding both, and creating compound words. Thus, the chart illustrates an analysis of morphemes according to type and how these types of morphemes are combined, promoting an understanding of the morphemic structure in words. B is incorrect because only a single compound word is presented in the web, which is insufficient to illustrate and promote understanding of this word type. C is incorrect because syllable patterns are not the focus of analysis. D is incorrect because the only root word in the web, the base word act, is derived from the Latin word actus and is not a Greek root.

Which of the following sets of words would be most effective to use when introducing students to the concept of structural analysis?

pretest, retest, tested, testing
In the context of reading, structural analysis is the process of recognizing the morphemic structure of words. Typically, structural analysis is introduced to students in the early elementary grades as a strategy for identifying words with inflections or simple affixes that are in students' oral vocabulary. The list in D features a phonically regular base word and affixes that are appropriate for beginning readers. A is incorrect because the words in this list contain only one morpheme and thus are not useful for demonstrating structural analysis. B is incorrect because the list features words that contain prefixes and roots that are inappropriate for beginning instruction in structural analysis. C is incorrect because this list features a base word (swim) with irregular past tense forms (swam, swum) which do not lend themselves to structural analysis

An English Language Learner pronounces tigers as tiger when reading the following sentence aloud.
They saw tigers at the zoo.
Which of the following actions is most appropriate for the teacher to take first in response to the student's miscue?

verify that the student understands that tigers means more than one tiger
Since there is often a discrepancy between an English Language Learner's receptive and productive language skills, the student may in fact recognize the omitted element but simply not pronounce it, may not have the element in his or her oral vocabulary, or may have difficulty decoding the element. To assess the source of the error and respond appropriately, the teacher must first determine whether the missing element is in the student's oral vocabulary. A and C are incorrect because the teacher must ensure that the plural –s is in the student's oral vocabulary before beginning differentiated instruction in decoding words with the morpheme. D is incorrect because assessing the student's knowledge of the word tiger does not provide information relevant to the student's miscue.

The following sentence is missing several words.
(1) unusual (2) of spices (3) the soup an (4) flavor.
A word with the suffix - tion would fit best in which of the blanks in the sentence?

(2)
Words ending with the derivational suffix – tion are nouns (e.g., combination, addition). The syntax of English determines the word orders that are possible (i.e., grammatically correct) in sentences. For example, articles and adjectives precede the nouns they modify. In the sentence, unusual is an adjective, so blank 1 would most likely represent an article (e.g., the, an), and blank 2 would most likely represent a noun. Therefore, blank 2 is an appropriate placement for a word ending in – tion . A is incorrect because blank 1 most likely represents an article. C is incorrect because it is the only likely placement for the verb in this sentence, given the structure of the sentence frame. D is incorrect because blank 4 follows an article and precedes a noun, so it is not a likely position for another noun.

Which of the following principles is best illustrated by the words watched, wanted, and warned?

The spelling of a suffix is often more reliable than its pronunciation.
The words listed all contain the regular past-tense inflection –ed. The ending is spelled the same way in all three cases, but the ending is pronounced differently in each word. In the word watched, the –ed ending is pronounced [t]. In the word wanted, the –ed ending is pronounced [ĕd]. In the word warned, the –ed ending is pronounced [d]. A is incorrect because the three words illustrate that a single spelling of the ending can be pronounced three different ways. B is incorrect because none of the words contain an open syllable and thus do not illustrate characteristics of open syllables. D is incorrect because the syllabication guideline given is relevant to only one of the words (the word wanted).

The words enjoyable, maneuverable, corruptible, and convertible best illustrate which of the following principles?

The spelling of a suffix can vary depending on its root word.
The four words presented contain the same derivational suffix, which has two variant spellings, – able and – ible . The correct spelling of the suffix in a particular word depends on the root of the word. B, C, and D are incorrect because the phonological and orthographic variations described in these responses do not occur in the words listed.

A second-grade teacher has students pull two single-syllable nouns from a hat (e.g., bulb, light) and asks them to form words by putting the words together (e.g., lightbulb). Students then draw pictures to illustrate their new words and write short stories using the new words. This activity is likely to be most effective for helping students:

understand the concept of compound words.
A compound word is a word composed of two base words, and the meaning of a compound word is related to the meaning of these component parts. Combining two words to form a single new word illustrates the concept of compound words. A is incorrect because the activity described is not directly related to reading and comprehending a text. B is incorrect because the activity described does not focus on phonics patterns. C is incorrect because the activity is not relevant to reading or identifying unfamiliar words in connected text.

Instruction in structural analysis is likely to promote upper elementary students' reading comprehension primarily by:

equipping them with strategies for understanding the meanings of unfamiliar multisyllable words.
In the context of reading, structural analysis is the process of recognizing the morphemic structure of words. Readers who recognize component morphemes (i.e., base words, prefixes, suffixes, and inflections) in unfamiliar, morphologically complex words can use this knowledge to support decoding or to derive the likely meaning of the words. A is incorrect because instruction in word analysis skills as a decoding strategy is typically taught during earlier stages of reading development. B is incorrect because recognizing component morphemes in words does not provide information relevant to text structures and features. D is incorrect because teaching the use of structural analysis is not sufficient in itself to help students learn key content-area vocabulary.

A third-grade teacher administers the following informal reading assessment to individual students.
One student performs significantly better on the second part of the test than on the first. Which of the following is the best assessment of this student's reading performance?

The student is proficient at using context clues to help identify words but has weak word decoding skills.

All of the words that appear in the word list also appear in the passage. A student who has difficulty reading these words in isolation, but succeeds in reading the words in the passage, must use information available only in the text to support word identification. A reader who can recognize most of the words in a passage can use the context of an unfamiliar word to deduce the syntactic category (e.g., noun, verb, adjective) and some semantic information about the unfamiliar word. B and D are incorrect because the factors identified in these responses do not vary in the two parts of the assessment, and thus cannot explain the difference in the student's performance in these two parts. C is incorrect because the student performs well on the second part of the assessment, so is likely skilled at using both syntactic and semantic clues.

A second-grade teacher uses the following handout to guide the class through an activity.
This activity would best promote students' ability to:

identify and decode common homographs.

Homographs are words that are spelled the same way but have different meanings. For example, the words saw, meaning the cutting tool, and saw, meaning the past tense of the verb to see, have different origins and meanings, but they are spelled the same way. The activity in the box promotes students' awareness of the characteristics of homographs. Drawing students' attention to the fact that two words can be spelled the same way but have completely different meanings would not contribute to their understanding of structural analysis (B), semantic analysis (C), or synonyms (D).

A sixth-grade student encounters the following sentence in a short story.
She experienced a sense of déjà vu as she walked down the street of the strange new city.
The student asks the teacher about the meaning of déjà vu in the sentence. The teacher could best respond by advising the student to take which of the following steps?Term

Look up the word in the dictionary, and then paraphrase the sentence using the dictionary definition.
Stopping to consult a dictionary is generally disruptive to the reading process; however, in some situations, as with the sentence shown in the box, consulting a dictionary is the only effective method for determining the meaning of an unfamiliar term encountered in a text. Also, paraphrasing the sentence by substituting the dictionary definition for the unfamiliar term is a good method for both reinforcing understanding of the new term and returning the reader to the flow of the story. The other strategies given would not be effective in this particular situation. B is incorrect because contextual analysis would not be a useful strategy here, since the sentence around the term déjà vu provides little or no clues as to the term's meaning. Using structural analysis (D) would also not be helpful, since the term is made up of two words and they are borrowed from the French language. Finally, simply noting the term in a vocabulary log and coming back to it after finishing reading the story (A) would cause the student to miss the significance of the sentence and could diminish the student's comprehension of the story.

Before beginning a new content-area reading passage, a fourth-grade teacher asks students to think of words related to the topic of the text. The teacher writes the words on the board and then asks the students to suggest ways to group the words based on meaningful connections. The teacher also encourages them to explain their reasons for grouping particular words together. This series of activities is likely to promote the students' reading development primarily by helping them:

extend and reinforce their expressive and receptive vocabularies related to the text's topic.

Grouping words related to a text based on conceptual categories and the words' associative meanings helps deepen students' understanding of the vocabulary. Discussing and justifying connections among the words further enhances students' understanding of the words and promotes retention of new words. B is incorrect because, while exploring the etymology of target vocabulary words can also be an effective strategy for deepening students' understanding of the words, the series of activities described in the scenario did not involve exploration of word derivations. Nor did it involve using semantic or syntactic clues from the text to verify words' meanings (D). C is incorrect because studying the conceptual connections among key vocabulary in a text is not likely to enhance students' understanding of the text's structure.

A first-grade teacher designs the following activity. 1. Divide students into pairs. 2. Have students sit back-to-back. 3. Give one student in each pair a picture of a familiar object to describe to his or her partner. 4. The partner tries to name the object based on the description.
This activity is likely to contribute to students' literacy development primarily by:

promoting their oral language development and listening comprehension.
In the activity described, the students must convey the identifying features of an object using oral language alone. This prompts the students to use descriptive language and synonyms to try to evoke a mental image of the object in the minds of their partners. Conversely, the partners must listen attentively and focus carefully on these oral language clues to visualize and make accurate deductions about the objects. A is incorrect because the activity is completely oral, so it would not be effective in promoting students' connections between spoken language and print. Since the activity is structured and monitored by the teacher, it is also not likely to enhance the students' ability to work independently (B). D is incorrect because a critical component of the activity is to promote students' listening comprehension.

A fifth-grade student reads the sentence, "After playing with her friends all day, Kaylee did her science homework, her geography project, and her composition in one fell swoop." The student asks the teacher for help understanding what is meant by the phrase one fell swoop. The teacher can best help the student understand this idiomatic expression by:

discussing with the student more examples of the phrase used in context.
The phrase one fell swoop is an idiom. An idiomatic expression is a sequence of words that has a specific meaning beyond the sum of the meanings of the component words. In addition to explaining the idiom's specific meaning, the most effective way to promote a student's understanding of a new idiom is to provide the student with several examples of the idiom used in comprehensible contexts. B and D are incorrect because one fell swoop functions semantically as a single unit, so using various means for determining the meaning of its component words would not help the student determine the meaning of the unit as a whole. Tree diagrams (C) are used to represent the grammatical structure of a sentence. This would be useful in helping the student determine the grammatical function of the phrase in the sentence but not its meaning.

A second-grade student demonstrates automaticity decoding grade-level regular and irregular words. However, the student frequently experiences poor text comprehension. Which of the following is the first step the teacher should take in order to promote this student's reading proficiency?

determining the extent of the student's vocabulary knowledge
For a student to comprehend a text during reading, the student must be able to decode each word and then connect the decoded word to a word in his or her oral vocabulary. Research has shown that if a reader does not understand the meaning of at least 90 percent of the words in a text, comprehension breaks down. Therefore, a student who has automaticity decoding grade-level words but a very limited oral vocabulary may be able to apply accurate decoding skills when reading an extended text but still not be able to make sense of the text. A and B are incorrect because the student in the scenario already demonstrates automaticity decoding grade-level regular and irregular words, so phonologically based deficits are not likely causing his or her comprehension difficulties. C is incorrect because readers use syntactic clues as a strategy for determining a word's grammatical function in a sentence. This can be helpful as a decoding strategy for verifying the meaning and pronunciation of a multiple-meaning word but is not a text-comprehension strategy.

A fifth-grade teacher is about to begin a new unit on weather and climate. Which of the following types of vocabulary words from the unit would be most appropriate for the teacher to preteach?

words that are conceptually challenging
Conceptually challenging words, especially those associated with a new content-specific unit of study, are not likely to be in students' oral vocabularies, let alone in their reading vocabularies. To support students' reading comprehension of content-area texts associated with the unit, it is critical to introduce students to key concepts and associated vocabulary in both their oral and written forms prior to reading. B and D are incorrect because high-frequency words, whether with irregular spellings or multiple meanings (B and D respectively), are likely to be in students' reading vocabularies. Similarly, students begin to encounter many multisyllable words (C) in their reading by second grade, so this feature alone would not necessarily indicate that such words would be unfamiliar to students.

A text includes the word indefensible, which is unfamiliar to some students in a fourth-grade class. Which of the following strategies for teaching the word would be most effective in both clarifying the meaning of the word and extending the students' vocabulary development?

Help the students apply structural and contextual analyses to construct and confirm the word's meaning.
Teaching students to use structural analysis and their knowledge of familiar English morphemes (i.e., the root defense and the affixes in- and -ible) to deduce the meaning of a new word containing these morphemes provides students with a powerful independent word-learning strategy. This strategy immediately extends students' understanding of both the target word and other words that contain these morphemes. Afterwards, the students should use contextual clues in the text to verify that the meaning they have deduced fits the context. A, B, and D are incorrect because they describe strategies students can use to clarify the meaning of a particular word, but they do not extend the students' vocabulary development beyond the target word.

In which of the following sentences is context most helpful in understanding the italicized word?

Peter's mother was adamant that he should attend college, but his father did not seem to care.
This sentence provides a reader with both syntactic and semantic clues as to the meaning of the italicized word adamant. First, the coordinating conjunction but sets up a comparison between the two independent clauses, which immediately alerts the reader that the meaning of the second clause contrasts the meaning of the first clause. Next, the meaning of the second clause is simple and clear—Peter's father did not seem to care whether or not Peter attended college. Thus, we now know that Peter's mother must have felt very strongly that he should attend. Indeed, someone who is adamant about something is unshakable or unmovable in his or her belief. In the other responses, the contexts do not provide adequate clues for the reader to deduce the meaning of the italicized words. In fact, a reader could substitute a variety of words for the italicized word in A (e.g., rare, blooming), B (e.g., immediately, collaboratively), or C (e.g., rude, selfish), and any of them would be plausible in the given context.

Students in a third-grade class are studying different forms of transportation that are used around the world. As part of this unit of study, they work together to create a semantic map of words associated with transportation, including words that they have recently learned (e.g., barge, rickshaw). This activity is most likely to promote students' vocabulary development by:

helping them to categorize, visualize, and remember new vocabulary
In content-area subjects, concept building and vocabulary building are reciprocal and closely interdependent processes. Helping students construct a semantic map of words associated with a particular content-area topic such as transportation both deepens and broadens their understanding of the topic. It also provides them with a framework for making connections among related words (e.g., barge, rickshaw). Creating the visual display of the semantic map, in which related words are literally grouped together, also aids students' recall of the connections among the words. The other responses are incorrect because teaching students how to use structural analysis (A), encouraging exploration of multiple-meaning words (C), and providing students with multiple exposures to new words (D) are all strategies for supporting vocabulary development but are not the primary goals of the semantic mapping activity described.

A third-grade class that includes several English Language Learners is about to read a text about water sports. Which of the following teaching strategies would be most effective in promoting the English Language Learners' comprehension of the text?

Activate students' prior knowledge about the topic and provide visual aids such as illustrations to clarify new vocabulary.
Two of the most effective instructional strategies for promoting English Language Learners' comprehension of a content-area text are activating the students' prior knowledge of the text's content and contextualizing new concepts and vocabulary through the use of visuals, demonstrations, and/or hands-on activities. To contextualize new vocabulary related to water sports, the use of visuals such as illustrations and photographs would be the most effective (and efficient) strategy to use and would also activate any prior knowledge the students had regarding the topic. The strategies described in A, B, and D are not likely to be particularly effective in promoting English Language Learners' comprehension of the text because they neither build nor activate background knowledge related to the topic, and they do not help contextualize new vocabulary for learners.

A sixth-grade teacher is planning explicit instruction to help students read and understand sentences that have a complex sentence structure. Which of the following skills would be most effective for the teacher to focus on first?

identifying the independent clause at the heart of a sentence
Complex sentences contain two or more clauses, with the main clause being the independent clause that contains the sentence's subject and predicate. Identifying the main clause will help students begin to deconstruct a complex sentence to determine its meaning. B is incorrect because a sentence written in passive voice does not necessarily contain multiple clauses. C and D are incorrect because identifying transition words or distinguishing between demonstrative and indefinite pronouns would not help students deconstruct a complex sentence.

Over the course of the school year, a sixth-grade student who had been a fluent, proficient reader in previous years is having increasing difficulty comprehending grade-level literary and informational texts assigned in class. The results of informal, curriculum-based assessments indicate that the student still meets grade-level expectations in vocabulary knowledge, but the student's reading rate and comprehension have dropped below grade level. The student also tends to choose fiction and graphic novels written well below the sixth-grade level for independent reading. The student's overall reading performance suggests that the student would likely benefit most from instruction focused on promoting the student's:

knowledge and skills related to understanding complex academic language.
Research has shown that independent reading of a wide range of literary and informational texts plays a key role in students' academic language development, as the language of books tends to be more sophisticated than that of everyday social language. The student in this scenario likely has adequate foundational reading skills, given the student's prior reading proficiency. However, the student's independent reading is limited to "fiction and graphic novels written well below" grade level, thus limiting the student's exposure to grade-level academic language, which in turn inhibits progress in reading comprehension. B, C, and D are incorrect because the student had been a fluent, proficient reader in previous years and continues to read low-level texts with pleasure, thus foundational reading skills are not likely at the root of the student's current difficulty with complex academic texts.

Before reading aloud a book about a farm to a group of beginning readers, a first-grade teacher has the students brainstorm and briefly discuss words related to farms. Next, the teacher reads the text aloud from a big book, pointing to each word being read. Periodically, the teacher stops to discuss with students key concepts or events described in the text and to guide students in relating the text to the illustrations. After finishing the read-aloud, the teacher puts the book in the classroom library and encourages the students to read it on their own.
The students are most likely to be successful in their independent reading of the book if:

the students can decode and understand the meaning of at least 95 percent of the words in the text.
Word recognition and vocabulary knowledge are primary factors affecting reading comprehension. In addition to understanding a text's key vocabulary words orally, the reader must also be able to recognize those words in print. If the students could both decode and understand the meaning of at least 95 percent of the words in the text, they would be performing well above the threshold of 90 percent, at which point comprehension breaks down. The factors described in responses B, C, and D are not as significant as vocabulary knowledge in contributing to students' ability to read a text independently

Before reading aloud a book about a farm to a group of beginning readers, a first-grade teacher has the students brainstorm and briefly discuss words related to farms. Next, the teacher reads the text aloud from a big book, pointing to each word being read. Periodically, the teacher stops to discuss with students key concepts or events described in the text and to guide students in relating the text to the illustrations. After finishing the read-aloud, the teacher puts the book in the classroom library and encourages the students to read it on their own.
The theoretical basis for including the brainstorming activity in this lesson is that having the students share their vocabulary knowledge about farms prior to the reading will:

facilitate the students' comprehension by activating prior knowledge and building schema.
The brainstorming activity described in the stimulus paragraph (on page A-57) is designed to activate students' prior knowledge and build background knowledge (schema) to facilitate their reading comprehension of the story. A is incorrect because the activity would not be very effective in assessing and comparing students' oral language skills, since their vocabularies are likely to vary widely on this topic (farms) depending on their prior experiences with farms. The activity also does not relate to the development of concepts of print (B) or phonics (D).

Before reading aloud a book about a farm to a group of beginning readers, a first-grade teacher has the students brainstorm and briefly discuss words related to farms. Next, the teacher reads the text aloud from a big book, pointing to each word being read. Periodically, the teacher stops to discuss with students key concepts or events described in the text and to guide students in relating the text to the illustrations. After finishing the read-aloud, the teacher puts the book in the classroom library and encourages the students to read it on their own.
The most important reason for putting the book in the classroom library is to promote the students':

love of reading by facilitating their access to a story that they have already heard, understood, and enjoyed.

Reading aloud to children is a research-based strategy for promoting students' interest in reading and in books. Providing students with access to a book that the teacher has already read aloud and discussed with them is likely to foster their love of reading because the teacher has provided various scaffolds for comprehending the story, and thus they are likely to experience some level of success in reading it independently. Responses B, C, and D are incorrect because simply providing access to the book is not likely to contribute to the students' knowledge of the alphabetic principle (B), oral language development (C), or use of metacognitive strategies (D), which all require explicit instruction and guided practice.

Which of the following strategies would be most appropriate to use to promote second-grade students' ability to analyze key ideas and details in a literary text?

helping students create a story map of the main characters in a story and the events with which they are involved
Characters and plot are key elements of story structure in narrative texts. At the second-grade level, students' literary analysis focuses primarily on these elements. Helping students create a story map focused on main characters and events would both reinforce their understanding of these key components of story grammar and support their analysis of key ideas and details of the text. A is incorrect because learning about the features of different literary genres helps support reading comprehension but it would not necessarily promote students' ability to analyze key ideas and details in a particular text. B is incorrect because, while setting can be important to a narrative text, characters and plot are generally more significant, especially with primary-grades texts. D is incorrect because it focuses more on students' personal responses to a text rather than on their development of literary analysis skills.

After students in a sixth-grade class finish reading a historical novel about the U.S. Civil War, the teacher asks each student to bring in an object, or a picture or illustration of an object, that, to them, represents the book. The students must also identify a passage or passages from the book that they can use to support their choices when they present their objects to the class. This activity is most likely to promote students' reading development by helping them understand the importance of:

basing interpretations about a literary work on textual evidence.
By asking students to think about an object that represents the novel to them and to identify passages from the text to support their choice, the teacher prompts the students to reflect on ideas and/or feelings the book evoked in them as they read and to ensure that their reflections are in fact derived from events in the text and not from their own experience or imagination. A is incorrect because the assignment is open-ended—individual students' interpretations of the book and their choice of an object are unique, so the activity does not require the students to focus on the author's point of view. It also does not necessarily focus their attention on the plot's sequence of events (B). C is incorrect because the activity does not explicitly require students to explore the author's use of figurative language.

A fifth-grade teacher guides students in reading a complex literary text. First, the teacher reads aloud the beginning of the text as the students follow along silently in their copies. Next, the teacher rereads key phrases and sentences, asking students what the author meant by certain statements or by the choice of certain words. Finally, the teacher and students reread the section aloud together with expression. The teacher repeats these steps with each section of the text. This activity promotes reading proficiency primarily by:

modeling for students how to engage in close reading of academic texts.
In the scenario, the teacher guides students' engagement in key processes involved in close reading, such as rereading a complex text to enhance comprehension, analyzing the author's use of language, and questioning the author's intentions and goals. B is incorrect because, while the activity does prompt students to think about the author's choice of words in certain sentences, the activity does not "primarily" focus on vocabulary. C is incorrect because the activity focuses more on building students' comprehension, and their prosody by extension, rather than on developing their fluency with respect to accuracy and rate. D is incorrect because the strategies involved in the activity do not necessarily involve metacognition.

Sixth-grade students have just finished reading a chapter in a novel and are getting ready to write an entry in their response journals. The teacher could most effectively develop students' literary response skills by assigning which of the following journal prompts?

What do you think is the main idea or theme of the novel? Relate specific events in this chapter to the theme you suggest.
At the secondary level, formal literary response involves developing a thesis and providing evidence from the text to support the thesis. To help sixth graders learn how to construct an effective literary response to a text, the teacher should provide opportunities, such as prompted writing in response journals, to develop a thesis related to a text (e.g., identifying a main idea or theme of the text), and then to support their thesis by citing evidence from the text. A emphasizes vocabulary development, while the questions in responses B and D focus students on literal comprehension skills only—that is, identifying factual information explicitly stated in the text

A second-grade teacher reads a trade book aloud to the class. Which of the following postreading activities would be most likely to promote the students' comprehension of the story by enhancing their literary analysis skills?

discussing with the students how the characters in the story respond to major events and challenges
At the second-grade level, a significant focus of literary analysis involves thinking about characters and how characters' actions and words provide clues about their motivations. A, C, and D are incorrect because having students identify important vocabulary from the story (A), reread the story and respond to literal comprehension questions (C), or engage in a "freewrite" about the story (D) could enhance their comprehension of the story but would not develop their literary analysis skills.

A fifth-grade class is about to read a play about the life of Harriet Tubman called "Travels on the Railroad." Which of the following prereading activities would best promote students' comprehension of the text?

asking students to share what they already know about the time period during which the play takes place
Activating students' prior knowledge related to a text is a powerful strategy for promoting their comprehension of the text. A is incorrect because it develops students' general knowledge of the genre, but it does not facilitate the students' comprehension of the text, which is based on historical events with which they may be unfamiliar. Similarly, asking questions about a text based on its title (B) can be very helpful in setting a purpose for reading and thus supporting reading comprehension; however, the title of this particular play is metaphorical, so it may generate questions that are totally irrelevant. Creating original skits based on the same subject (D) also can extend students' comprehension of a text, but this strategy would be most effective as a postreading activity rather than as a prereading activity.

A second-grade teacher notices that one of her students lacks fluency when reading aloud. The first thing the teacher should do in order to help this student is assess whether the student also has difficulties with:

decoding
Reading fluency is integral to reading comprehension. The key indicators of reading fluency are accuracy, rate, and prosody. In the primary grades, the most common factor disrupting fluency is weak decoding skills, which most directly affects reading accuracy but affects the other indicators as well (e.g., by causing a slow rate or resulting in choppy reading). A, B, and C are incorrect because predicting, inferring, and metacognition are skills or strategies that support reading comprehension. Having difficulty in these skills or strategies would not necessarily affect a student's reading fluency.

Read the passage below; then answer the question that follows.
For the second time that week, Saul forgot to wash his hands after working on his painting. He had gotten so involved filling in the ocean in his picture that he had barely even heard the teacher telling everyone it was time to put away their easels and wash up for lunch. He had put his supplies away, but, still thinking about the ocean, he had gone straight to his desk. Now he saw that he was leaving blue-paint handprints on his desk, on his shirt, on his books—even on his lunchbox. Estella looked over at him and joked, "Hey, Saul! You're the new King Midas! Only you turn everything to blue!" Saul rolled his eyes at her as he got back up to go to the sink.
This passage would be most suited for helping students:

recognize a literary allusion.
A literary allusion is when an author refers indirectly to an earlier literary work by using a name, word, or phrase closely associated with that literary work. In this passage, the character Estella refers to King Midas, a character of Greek legend who was given the power to turn everything he touched to gold. While a teacher could use this passage to analyze perhaps one story element, such as character (B), or possibly to predict future events (C), the passage is not particularly well suited to teach these skills. Also, in this passage the author renders the action objectively (describing a series of observable events in emotionally neutral language without commentary); thus, it would not lend itself to an analysis of the author's point of view (D).

Students in a third-grade class are working on an interdisciplinary unit on Native Americans of the Northeast. The teacher has selected a historical novel for students to read during the unit to help them gain insight into people's daily lives in a particular Native American nation at a particular point in time. However, the teacher is aware that the novel's text complexity may make comprehension difficult for a group of struggling readers in the class. Which of the following strategies would be most effective for the teacher to use to support the struggling readers' comprehension of the novel and their purpose for reading?

engaging the students in guided reading and rereading of key passages in the novel
Guiding students in reading and rereading key passages of a complex text scaffolds their understanding of the text by allowing them to delve deeper into the ideas presented in the text with each successive reading. The activities described in responses B, C, and D would not be effective in facilitating struggling readers' comprehension of the novels because these activities do not provide the students with sufficient scaffolding to support students' construction of meaning of a complex text.

A teacher can best help sixth graders draw inferences from informational text by asking them to complete which of the following statements?

The passage suggests . . .

To draw an inference from a text is to derive a conclusion that is not stated explicitly in the text but rather is suggested by facts or premises presented. A is incorrect because stating an opinion about a text does not necessarily involve deducing or deriving a conclusion from explicit information in the text. C and D focus on the use of literal comprehension rather than inferential comprehension.

A sixth-grade teacher gives students several persuasive essays that present contrasting opinions on a current social issue. The teacher then asks students to consider the following questions as they read the texts.
1. What is the author's opinion on the issue? 2. How might the author's background influence his or her opinion? 3. What evidence does the author use to support his or her opinion?
These questions are likely to be most effective for helping students:

analyze point of view in expository texts.
A persuasive essay is an expository text in which an author takes a stand on an issue and tries to persuade readers by presenting an argument and evidence to support that stand. The teacher's questions are designed to help students analyze the authors' points of view by identifying an author's opinion as presented in an argument, evaluating how effectively the author supports the argument, and considering factors that may have influenced the author's opinion. A is incorrect because, while students may monitor their comprehension of the texts, comprehension monitoring is not explicitly taught or reinforced by the questions. Similarly, the skills described in B and C may be secondary outcomes of this activity but are not the primary goal

A third-grade teacher periodically reads aloud from a chapter in content-area textbooks and describes his thought processes as he reads. Following is an example:
"'The moon does not shine on its own. The sun's light reflects off the moon.' Hmm. I'm imagining that the sun is like a flashlight shining on the moon in the dark. 'As the moon rotates, only the part that faces the sun is visible from the Earth.' I'm not quite sure what "visible" means, but it sounds kind of like vision, which I know has to do with eyes. It probably means the part that we can see from the Earth. Now, that makes me wonder—why do we see different amounts of the moon at different times? Let's see if the next part of the chapter explains this . . ."
This practice is most likely to promote students' reading proficiency by:

modeling for them metacognitive comprehension strategies.
Metacognitive reading comprehension strategies prompt students to think about their thinking as they read a text. The teacher models two powerful metacognitive strategies: visualizing to support comprehension and self-questioning to clarify understanding and to set a purpose for further reading. A is incorrect because while the teacher talks about the vocabulary word visible and determines what it means deductively, the focus of this portion of the teacher's think-aloud is promoting the students' comprehension of the sentence as a whole in which the word visible occurs. C is incorrect because the teacher pauses several times during reading to make comments about the text, so the teacher does not present an example of fluent oral reading. The teacher could conceivably summarize the text at the end of the think-aloud (D), but there is no evidence in the description to suggest this will occur.

Skimming is likely to be the most effective strategy for accomplishing which of the following reading tasks?

previewing a chapter in a content-area textbook
Skimming involves a quick, superficial reading of a text to get an overall impression of the material. This would be an appropriate and effective strategy for previewing a textbook chapter. The other responses are incorrect because evaluating the validity of information on a Web site (A), synthesizing information from a variety of sources for research purposes (C), and studying facts for a content-area exam (D) all require a more careful reading of textual materials.

A sixth-grade class is working on an Internet research project about various natural resources and their uses. The teacher could best support students' effective use of the Internet for their research by:

providing students with a checklist of questions that prompt critical evaluation of information on Web sites.
Determining whether a given Web site contains reliable information is an important step in conducting research on the Internet. Having students question the validity of content they read on a Web site will build this skill, promoting their ability to conduct more effective and bias-free research. B is incorrect because giving students a list of preapproved Web sites does not promote their independent research skills. Encouraging them to rely only on user-friendly Web sites (C) could lead students to ignore Web sites that contain valuable, objective information. Employing a variety of search engines (D) does not necessarily lead to more effective research, since different search engines are likely to identify a similar list of potential Web sites.

Which of the following text features are students likely to find most useful when previewing informational texts such as library books for a research project?

table of contents

A table of contents shows how the content of a text is organized and provides clues to the types of information the reader is likely to find in each section. Skimming a text's table of contents provides a reader with a quick and effective preview of the text's content. This allows a reader to determine whether the text might be useful for a particular research project. A is incorrect because a typical index lists all the topics covered by a text in great detail, but it is organized alphabetically rather than grouped in broad categories, so it is less effective as a tool for previewing texts. B and C are incorrect because bibliographies provide information about the sources the author(s) used in developing the text, while glossaries provide definitions of key terms used in the text.

A third-grade teacher observes that students who read aloud fluently also demonstrate greater comprehension of expository texts. The best explanation for this is that fluent readers:

are able to focus their full attention and cognitive resources on the meaning of a text.
Research has shown that fluent readers have higher levels of comprehension than readers who lack fluency. By the third grade, fluent readers have developed automaticity in decoding, which allows them to focus on the meaning of what they are reading rather than on expending all their effort and energy on decoding each individual word letter by letter. Achieving reading fluency does not necessarily mean that students know how to use metacognitive skills (A) or that they have already developed background knowledge at the level of a textbook (B). Having fluency also does not mean that a third-grade student is skilled enough to decode any level of text (C).

A fifth-grade teacher gives students a reading guide for an informational text that they will be reading independently. The reading guide contains various activities, including prompting students to summarize certain passages, to explain relationships between concepts according to specific information in the text, and to determine the meaning of domain-specific words based on appositives or appositive phrases embedded in the text. This reading guide is likely to be most effective for achieving which of the following instructional purposes?

encouraging students to read and interact closely with the text
Reading guides such as the one described compel students to reread a complex academic text multiple times so they can complete the activities in the guide, which are specifically designed to help the students interact with the content and language of the text. A is incorrect because the activities do not focus on developing students' evaluative comprehension skills. C is incorrect because use of such a guide would not promote development of prosodic reading, since it is a silent reading activity that does not involve explicit or implicit teacher modeling of or instruction in prosodic reading. A text-based reading guide would not teach students how to adjust their reading rate based on text difficulty (D) because it focuses on just one specific text.

Two proficient readers are answering postreading comprehension questions about a chapter in a content-area textbook.
The first student demonstrates exceptional recall of details from the chapter but has difficulty answering questions about the gist of the chapter.
The second student can give an outstanding summary of the chapter but has difficulty remembering specific facts from the chapter.
Which of the following best explains the most likely reason for the students' varied understanding of the text?

Each student applied different reading comprehension skills when reading the text.
Many factors contribute to reading comprehension. Skilled readers use different comprehension strategies to achieve different purposes. For example, the first student described in this item may have skimmed the chapter to look for specific words or phrases mentioned in the comprehension questions, while the second student may have scanned the chapter for main ideas but did not dwell on individual terms or facts. A is incorrect because the first student had difficulty answering questions about the gist of the chapter, so it is likely that that student did not apply metacognitive strategies to enhance understanding during reading. The second student was able to construct a strong summary of the chapter, which suggests an ability to use inferential skills, so C is incorrect. While background knowledge and experiences have a strong influence on reading comprehension (D), this factor cannot explain why the students focused on such different levels of the text.

An English Language Learner reads academic texts fluently in her primary language but is struggling to understand her content-area textbooks in English. This student would likely benefit most from engaging in which of the following activities?

learning to use metacognitive reading strategies with English text
The student reads academic texts well in her primary language, so she likely has both adequate background knowledge in the content areas and basic reading skills. The student would benefit from using metacognitive strategies such as self-monitoring to connect what she has already learned in the primary language with the content presented in the English textbooks. A, B, and D all focus on primary-language materials. While these strategies may be helpful in supporting the students' ongoing conceptual development with regard to specific content, they do not promote the students' ability to comprehend content-area textbooks in English.

A fifth-grade teacher plans to have students read a chapter about the American Revolutionary War from their social studies textbook. The following is an excerpt from the chapter.
The Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775. At the time, the American army occupied the area from Cambridge to the Mystic River. American troops gathered in Cambridge Common on the evening of June 16, 1775, and set out for Bunker Hill. Upon reaching Bunker Hill, however, officers decided to move to Breed's Hill, a smaller hill closer to Boston.
Based on this excerpt from the chapter, which of the following graphic organizers would best promote students' awareness of the chapter's text structure?

timeline

The text structure of this passage is chronological, focusing on when troop movements took place leading up to the battle. Timelines are the most effective form of graphic organizer for conveying a chronology of events. Outlines (A) and semantic maps (D) are well suited to passages that are organized into different sections or categories of related content. Venn diagrams (B) visually display similarities and differences between two or more related topics.

A fifth-grade teacher plans to have students read a chapter about the American Revolutionary War from their social studies textbook. The following is an excerpt from the chapter.
The Battle of Bunker Hill took place on June 17, 1775. At the time, the American army occupied the area from Cambridge to the Mystic River. American troops gathered in Cambridge Common on the evening of June 16, 1775, and set out for Bunker Hill. Upon reaching Bunker Hill, however, officers decided to move to Breed's Hill, a smaller hill closer to Boston
The teacher asks students to locate and mark places mentioned in the chapter on a map as they read. This activity is most likely to help students:

use visualization to facilitate their comprehension of the text.
The passage mentions several sites or landmarks with which students may be unfamiliar. Locating and marking these sites on a map would improve the students' ability to visualize the direction of the troop movements mentioned in the passage. B, C, and D are not skills that would be scaffolded, facilitated, or reinforced by having the students consult maps.

A third-grade teacher has been conducting a series of ongoing assessments of a student's oral reading. Shown below is a sentence from a text, followed by a transcription of a typical example of the student's oral reading performance.
Text: Her boots crunched through the snow. Student: Her boats crucked throw the snow.

After reading the sentence, the student paused and then reread it without the teacher's prompting and self-corrected the errors. Based on this information, the teacher could best meet this student's needs by adjusting instruction in order to:

improve the student's decoding skills.
The student's oral reading performance in this sample strongly suggests a lack of foundational knowledge in phonics and sight words. The miscues indicate serious decoding difficulties with various phonics elements, including lack of automaticity in decoding common vowel digraphs (reading boats for boots), common consonant digraphs (reading ck for ch), and complex consonant clusters (reading crucked for crunched). The student also misread a high-frequency sight word (through) that should have been mastered by the end of second grade. Conversely, this oral reading sample provides no evidence that the student has difficulty tracking print (D). And, by self-correcting his or her errors without prompting, the student demonstrates both understanding of the text's vocabulary (A) and the ability to self-monitor for comprehension (B).

Which of the following types of assessments would best provide information about the comparative reading proficiency of students in an elementary school?

a norm-referenced survey test
Norm-referenced tests are designed specifically for the purpose of comparing students' performance. Norms are statistics that describe the test performance of a representative sample group. In general, the tests in A and C are designed to measure the degree to which students meet specific objectives (i.e., they are criterion referenced); therefore, A and C are incorrect. A diagnostic portfolio (D) is individually administered and would most likely contain a comprehensive battery of reading assessments designed for diagnostic purposes.

Considerations of validity in test construction relate most closely to:

whether the test questions effectively measure their specified content.
Validity is the degree to which a test measures what it is intended to measure. A is incorrect because criterion referencing is the term used when a student's performance is related to a preestablished standard or set of objectives. C describes norm referencing. D describes test reliability.

If a standardized test is said to lack reliability, the test:

gives fluctuating scores in different administrations.

Reliability indicates the degree to which a test yields consistent results over successive administrations. If a test yielded fluctuating results, it would be considered to have low reliability. A relates to a test's content validity, while D relates to a test's predictive validity. Standardized tests are not intended to be used as interventions (B).

Which of the following informal assessment results provides the clearest indication that a kindergarten child has attained a beginning level of phonemic awareness?

The student can identify the beginning sound of single-syllable words.
Phonemic awareness is a specific type of phonological awareness involving the ability to distinguish the separate phonemes in a spoken word. Identifying the beginning sound of a single-syllable word is typically one of the earliest phonemic awareness skills developed, while substituting medial phonemes (D) is considered a more advanced phonemic awareness skill. A and B describe skills at the syllable or word level and are therefore not considered phonemic awareness skills.

One of the most important purposes of a standardized Informal Reading Inventory ( IRI ) is:

to establish a student's independent, instructional, and frustration reading levels.
Standardized Informal Reading Inventories ( IRIs ) are administered individually to students to establish the students' reading levels. The results of this type of assessment provide evidence to guide the selection of reading materials for students for instruction and/or interventions and to guide students in their selection of materials for independent reading. A is incorrect because the results of IRIs do not provide information about how a text's organization or a student's prior knowledge affect the student's comprehension. IRI results are also not helpful in determining what types of clues students use to determine the meaning of unfamiliar vocabulary (B) or in analyzing the relationship between a student's silent- and oral-reading proficiencies (C).

An advantage of using assessment tools such as portfolios and scoring rubrics is that they:

promote student participation in self-assessment activities.
Typically, the development of student work portfolios involves students in selecting and self-assessing some or all of the materials that are included in their individual portfolios. Students can use scoring rubrics to self-assess and guide their work. The other responses are incorrect because students and teachers can develop their own criteria for selecting student work for a particular portfolio and can develop their own scoring rubrics for evaluating that work; thus, the results of this form of assessment are neither more objective (A), nor more consistent (C), nor more reliable (D) than the results of standardized assessments

Which of the following best describes the primary advantage of having a student read a passage silently and then provide a "retelling" as a means of assessing the student's comprehension, rather than having the student answer questions?

A retelling is open-ended and requires the student to construct a description of the passage more independently of the examiner.
Having a young student provide a "retelling" (or having an older student construct a summary) of a text removes clues or scaffolds from the assessment that teacher questions often provide and ensures that a student's responses are based solely on his or her reading of the text. Some disadvantages of retellings include that the results are not easy to quantify (B) and the procedure is often unfamiliar to students, particularly to students who are new to U.S. schools (C). Also, since retellings are unstructured and usually elicit only explicitly stated details about the text, this type of assessment is not necessarily effective in assessing a student's inferential comprehension skills (D).

Which of the following criteria would be most important to consider when selecting "leveled texts" for use in assessments and guided reading with beginning-level readers?

The texts should use repeated words and natural oral language structures.
Beginning readers need lots of practice reading a variety of texts written at their independent reading levels to reinforce their knowledge of phonics and sight words already taught, build their automaticity, and improve their reading fluency. Leveled texts are series of texts constructed using controlled vocabulary and syntactic structures. Within a particular level, the texts share many of the same vocabulary words and follow basic syntactic structures, both of which gradually increase in difficulty in successive levels. Matching students to appropriate-level texts is key to providing beginning readers with effective practice opportunities. B is incorrect because the primary goal of using these texts with beginning readers is to reinforce students' decoding skills and promote reading fluency, not to promote their use of picture clues. They are also not designed to promote students' knowledge of literary language or devices (C). Because of their controlled nature, leveled texts feature a limited range of punctuation, and they purposefully introduce only a few new content vocabulary words per text (D).

In order to select a trade book that emphasizes predictability, a teacher should ensure that:

a phrase, rhyme, or sentence is repeated throughout the text.
Reading aloud predictable texts to prealphabetic and emergent readers is an effective way to promote young children's motivation to read and their development of concepts of print. The portion of the text that is predictable is generally a phrase, rhyme, or sentence that is repeated throughout the text, much like the refrain of a song. This repeated text is easy for young children to learn quickly, which allows them to "read" along with the teacher. A, B, and D all describe other important features common to books written for young children. However, these are not features that make the books predictable.

A fourth-grade English Language Learner is new to a school. Assessments suggest that the student can read orally with accuracy on grade level; however, the student's comprehension of grade-level textbooks fluctuates widely. Which of the following steps would be most appropriate for the teacher to take first in order to determine the cause of the student's difficulty?

Determine whether the student has adequate vocabulary and background knowledge to support comprehension of the textbooks.
Vocabulary and background knowledge are critical components of reading comprehension, providing the foundation of the schema a student uses to construct meaning from the text. An English Language Learner's English vocabulary is likely to have gaps, particularly with respect to content-area topics that are not typical subjects of everyday conversations. An English Language Learner may be familiar with a content-area topic, but he or she may lack the relevant English vocabulary needed to comprehend an English-language text about that topic. In the scenario described, word analysis and decoding skills are not likely the cause of the student's difficulty (A), since the English Language Learner is able to read with grade-level accuracy. For the same reason, a learning disability that affects language processing (B) and the student's level of first-language literacy (C) are not likely factors impeding his or her reading comprehension

A first-grade teacher encourages beginning readers to "write" their own captions beneath their drawings. This practice is most likely to lead to which of the following?

The students' development of phonics knowledge will be reinforced as they experiment with their own phonetic spellings.
Research has shown that students' understanding of the alphabetic principle is enhanced and reinforced by having opportunities to apply their knowledge of letter-sound correspondences in both reading and writing—the latter by using phonetic spellings. A is incorrect because providing students with meaningful opportunities to write is motivating rather than discouraging for beginning readers. B is incorrect because first-grade teachers should not insist on the correct spelling of words that follow phonics patterns that have not yet been introduced. C is incorrect because students' experimental spellings would not consistently match the spellings used in conventional texts, so engaging in this writing activity would not promote automatic word recognition.

Which of the following types of activities would be most important to include on a daily basis when planning reading instruction for first graders who are developing as beginning readers?

activities that promote students' development of decoding and other word analysis skills
Phonics and other word analysis skills, such as learning common inflectional endings and the orthographic rules governing their addition to words, are critical skills that promote beginning readers' development of proficiency in decoding. These skills in turn support students' development of reading fluency and comprehension. Daily, systematic, differentiated instruction and practice in these essential skills are necessary to ensure all students in a first-grade class develop into proficient readers. While some students at this level may still require differentiated or remedial instruction in concepts about print (A) and/or basic phonological awareness skills (B), these skills are generally mastered by most students in kindergarten, so they would not be taught to a whole first-grade class on a daily basis. Instruction in sight words is an important component of a research-based beginning reading program that is primarily phonics based; however, memorization of lists of sight words on a daily basis (D) is an ineffective instructional approach

A fifth-grade class silently reads an informational text. In subsequent informal assessments, several students are able to read the text orally with fluency but they demonstrate poor overall comprehension of the text. The teacher could most appropriately address these students' needs by adjusting future instruction in which of the following ways?

introducing a text's key vocabulary and guiding the students in close reading of key passages
Since the students could read the text orally with fluency during subsequent informal assessments, the teacher needs to consider other factors that may have affected the students' comprehension of the text. Informational texts introduce vocabulary words that are likely to be unfamiliar to many students in a fifth-grade classroom. Informational texts may also include academic language structures with which students are unfamiliar. For students to be able to read and comprehend such a text independently, the teacher may need to model and provide students with practice in close reading of key passages of the text, as well as explicitly teach key vocabulary prior to reading. Using only informational texts that are written at students' independent reading levels (A) is not an effective option, as these texts are unlikely to include important grade-level vocabulary and thus may not match grade-level standards for that content area. Similarly, simply providing students with instruction in test-taking skills (B) or focusing on narrative texts for reading activities (D) would not help students develop the content-specific knowledge and vocabulary required at their grade level

As a first-grade teacher reads a big book to a group of students, the teacher points to the beginning consonants of selected words and accentuates the sound the initial letter makes. This activity is most likely to promote the students':

ability to isolate individual sounds in words.
The activity described contributes to students' beginning reading development in a number of ways, including reinforcing their phonemic awareness (i.e., their ability to distinguish the separate phonemes in a spoken word), their knowledge of letter-sound correspondences, and their understanding of the alphabetic principle. The other responses are incorrect because the activity focuses students' attention on only the first letter of the words, so the activity would not promote students' awareness of multisyllable words (A), their structural analysis skills (C), or their ability to blend all the sounds in a word (D).

Which of the following children is most in need of immediate intervention?

a second-grade student who still decodes words letter by letter
By second grade, students should be reading many regular words and sight words automatically. In addition, when reading new words that follow regular phonics patterns already taught, the students should be reading these patterns as chunks. A second-grade student who still decodes each word letter by letter is substantially behind grade-level benchmarks for oral reading fluency and requires immediate intervention. A preschool child who has limited book-handling skills (A), a kindergarten child who has not developed letter-sound correspondences for all letters (B), and a first-grade student who reads mostly decodable texts (C) are all performing within the average acceptable range for the respective grade levels.

Which of the following is the most important reason for a fourth-grade teacher to assign a variety of high-quality trade books as a component of reading instruction?

Reading across genres helps students develop an understanding of the structures and features of different texts.
Trade books are books marketed to a general audience, as opposed to books developed for specialized audiences. Children's trade books cover a range of topics and include both fiction and nonfiction texts. Wide reading of trade books provides students with exposure to many genres and helps them begin to develop an awareness of the structural differences between genres. Trade books are not limited to specific themes (A), nor do they use simplified syntax or controlled vocabulary (C). Reading trade books does not explicitly (or implicitly) teach fourth-grade students phonological and phonemic awareness skills (D), which are typically developed at a much earlier grade level using primarily oral language activities

Frequent oral reading to kindergarten children using appropriate and expressive intonation and voices is likely to promote the students' reading development primarily by:

fostering their engagement in and love of reading.
Promoting young children's motivation to engage in literacy-related tasks is an essential component of an effective kindergarten reading program. Research has shown that reading aloud to students promotes their vocabulary development as well as their interest in books and reading. Using expressive voices makes the activity even more engaging. Because the focus of a read-aloud is the construction of meaning, a read-aloud is not appropriate or effective to use for developing students' auditory discrimination skills (A), teaching alphabetic skills such as letter-sound correspondence (B), or teaching phonological skills such as detecting word boundaries (D).

Which of the following strategies is likely to be most effective in promoting reluctant readers' interest in independent reading outside of school?

Encourage students and parents to read books together on a regular basis, either silently or aloud, and discuss their personal responses to each chapter or key event
Reluctant readers are often reluctant to read independently at home because they have experienced some level of difficulty in reading. Encouraging students to read with a proficient reader, such as a parent or guardian, and to discuss key events in the text helps scaffold and support their comprehension of the text. Sharing personal responses to books with a partner also underscores that reading can be a highly social and enjoyable act; this in turn promotes positive dispositions toward reading. A and B are incorrect because providing extrinsic rewards to students for their reading may work as a short-term strategy with some students, but it is not effective in promoting a lifelong interest in or love of reading. Withholding a treat or reward until reading is complete (D) is another short-term strategy, but it may actually increase reluctant readers' negative feelings about reading instead of fostering their positive feelings.

Electronic reading books are advantageous for beginning or struggling readers primarily because this type of computer software:

scaffolds learning by providing a high level of interactivity.
Electronic books can offer many scaffolds to beginning or struggling readers, including providing the opportunity to hear the pronunciation or the definition of an unfamiliar word in the text or to listen to the whole text read aloud by a proficient reader. While electronic books can be available for use on a computer, they are not necessarily limited to this medium (B). Electronic books can provide good models of fluent reading; however, they are inanimate objects, so they cannot model good reading practices or habits (C). While electronic books may use auditory input to enhance comprehension (D), this is intended to be a scaffold for the reader and not a substitute for the text.

Which of the following would be a component of effective vocabulary instruction?

Which of the following statements best describe an effective way to prepare students to listen to or read a text?

Which of the following strategies would be most appropriate to use to promote second grade students ability to analyze key ideas and details in a literary text?

Which sentence is most likely to challenge younger students language comprehension abilities?