The descriptors positive and negative when used in reference to reinforcers are synonyms for

109. If a child cries to obtain a new toy, the crying acts as aa. negative reinforcer.Correct.The child rewards the parent by removing the annoying cry when he/she getsthe toy that is desired.b. positive reinforcer.Incorrect.The removal of the crying is what rewards the parent, so it is a negativereinforcer.c. partial reinforcer.d. negatively punisher.e. shaper.Answer: a. negative reinforcer.Difficulty: 3Page Reference: 144Topic: The Power of ReinforcementSkill: AppliedObjective: 4.2

110. The descriptors "positive" and "negative," when used in reference to reinforcers, aresynonyms for

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Difficulty: 2Page Reference: 144Topic: The Power of ReinforcementSkill: ConceptualObjective: 4.2Answer: a. "add" and "remove."111. Bill hates to clean up after dinner. One night, he volunteers to bathe the dog beforecleaning up. When he finishes with the dog and returns to the kitchen, his wife hascleaned everything up for him. Which of the following statements is most likely TRUE?Difficulty: 3Page Reference: 144Topic: The Power of ReinforcementSkill: AppliedObjective: 4.2

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________ was a physiologist by training, but during an experiment testing the salivary gland of  dogs, he discovered ________ conditioning.

In Pavlov's original experiment, the key that the dogs had learned something was that 

They salivated at the sound of the footsteps of those that would feed them.

If you salivate when your mother calls you to dinner, we can attribute your reaction to 

The initial learning stage in classical conditioning in which the neutral stimulus is repeatedly  paired with the unconditioned stimulus is known as

As discrimination tasks with unpleasant stimuli become increasingly more difficult, we can expect  that an animal will eventually develop

agitation due to experimental neurosis

The avoid conditioned taste aversions, cancer patients are now given ____ during chemotherapy.

Unusually flavored candies or ice cream

Operant conditioning explains how new behaviors can be learned, while classical 

Much of B.F Skinner's early work was inspired by law of effect, which was created by 

The term "reinforcer" refers to any condition that ________ a response

The operant chamber which has come to be known as a "Skinner box" was designed so that 

animals could press a lever to receive food. 

________ is a procedure for changing behavior by reinforcing responses that approach 

The Premack principle states that 

a preferred activity can be used to reinforce a less preferred one.

Negative punishment is sometimes referred to as 

Punishment is an effective means to control someone's behavior only if 

you can control the environment all of the time.

Which of the following is true of punishment? 

Aggression is produced by punishment., Punishment may involve the application of an aversive stimulus, Punishment must be used consistently in order to be effective, Punishment interferes with the learning of new and better behaviors.

Wolfgang Kohler suggested that chimps 

use insight to come up with novel solutions to problems.

Tolman concluded that the rats he ran through mazes had created ________ to help them find

The capacity of an organism to form a cognitive map of its environment 

involves the hippocampus.

in Bandura's classic BoBo doll experiment, those children that saw aggressive models

were more likely to behave violently towards the BoBo doll.

________ reported that watching violent behaviors makes children more likely to behave violently?

The notion that learning produces physical changes in the synapses of the brain is consistent with

Damage to neurons within the ________ that use the transmitter ________ would be expected to diminish the experience of reward.

Kandel and Hawkins argue that complex organisms have two types of learning "circuits" in their  brains one involving simple motor responses and the other involving

complex learning that requires conscious processing

Learning always occurs as a result of

what is something that would be an example of learning?

A rat presses a lever to obtain a food pellet.

The two main types of behavioral learning discussed in this text are

classical conditioning and operant conditioning.

An eye blink is an example of 

A(n) ________ refers to the behavior elicited by the unconditioned stimulus

An unconditioned stimulus is any stimulus that 

naturally elicits a reflexive behavior

In order for the UCS to cause a UCR in Pavlov's study

there must be no learning

In Pavlov's experiments, a tone was the ________, and food was the ________

a conditioned stimulus (CS) is to an unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

After acquisition in classical conditioning, the ________ now has the ability to elicit a response the resembles the UCR.

________ refers to a procedure in classical conditioning where a CR no longer occurs in the presence of the CS due to the absence of the

One of Pavlov's dogs had stopped salivating at the sound of the tone. The next day the tone was presented again and the dog began salivating. Pavlov referred to this as  

A serious problem with Watson and Rayner's testing with Little Albert is the danger that

The fear response may generalize to other stimuli

For Little Albert, his fear of ________ was interpreted as an instance of ________.

a white laboratory rat; conditioned fear

One of the best therapy strategies for eliminating conditioned fears involves combining ________ in a process known as ________, first described by Mary Cover Jones.

extinction and relaxation, counterconditioning 

The factor that makes a food aversion different from most types of classical conditioning is that 

there can be a long time delay between the CS and the UCS

In John Garcia's study on taste aversion in coyotes, the goal was to create a situation in which sheep became the ________ so that coyotes would not attack them.

In operant conditioning, behavioral change is brought about by the manipulation of 

Operant behaviors are different from those in classical conditioning because, in classical conditioning, the behaviors are

________ are consequences that alter the likelihood of behaviors

B.F. Skinner was a radical behaviorist who refused to 

speculate about what happens inside an organism

Negative and positive reinforcers are similar in that these always ________ the likelihood of ensuing responses.

Negative reinforcement involves

the removal of an aversive stimulus

A positive reinforcer is used to ________ desired behavior. A negative reinforcer is used to ________ desired behavior.

The descriptors "positive" and "negative," when used in reference to reinforcers, are synonyms for 

The best strategy to teach an organism a new response is to use

continuous reinforcement.

Intermittent reinforcement is particularly effective for maintaining behavior because such reinforcement

Produces resistance to extinction 

In operant conditioning, extinction involves

withholding reinforcement.

The key difference between a ratio and an interval schedule of reinforcement is whether

reinforcement is determined by time or by number of responses

The key advantage of using a variable ratio schedule of reinforcement is that 

It prevents the extinction of the desired response

During summer camp, campers get a sticker each time they demonstrate good sportsmanship. When they have earned 10 stickers, they may select a candy bar. This represents an example of 

A punishment is an aversive consequence that

weakens the behavior it follows

A punishment ________ the probability of a response, while a negative reinforcer ________ the probability of a response

The similarity of positive reinforcement and positive punishment is that each involves 

Punishment must be administered ________ in order to be effective

The most effective form of punishment usually involves

penalties, such as loss of privileges

Which of the following is NOT a key difference between operant and classical conditioning?  A) whether they are voluntary B) whether behavior is based on past stimulation or future conditions C) Whether they are based on the behaviorist theory D) Whether the stimulus or the response comes first E) whether they are based on reflex responses

Whether they are based on the behaviorist theory

List a difference between operant and classical conditioning? 

Food is presented before the response in classical conditioning

The cognitive view would argue that learning

does not always change behavior, but always produces changes in mental activity

Insight learning involves

the perception of familiar objects in new forms or relationships

Studies of observational learning demonstrate that

learning can occur in the absence of personal experience

Robert Rescorla believes that the feature of the conditioned stimulus that most facilitates classical conditioning is its

In deciding whether there is a fire in your classroom building, which of the following provides the  best early information as to whether there is a fire?

According to Leon Kamin, we are most likely to pay attention to information that precedes the UCS only if

It provides unique information about the UCS

While walking down a dark alley, you jump at a loud noise. This would not be considered learning because

jumping is merely a reflex

When a dog rattles a chain by the door to indicate that he wants to go out, his owner is thrilled and thinks that her dog is brilliant. The dog, however, has not yet shown learning because

he may have accidentally bumped the chain.,the change must be lasting, he must demonstrate that he has associated the chain with going out through prior experience, he must repeat the behavior.

Jenna walks into her science class laboratory, and she immediately feels queasy. Today is the day her class is dissecting frogs and she is sickened by the smell of the formaldehyde. However, after an hour Jenna is no longer sickened because of

When you go grocery shopping, you may buy brands that you have often seen advertized on TV. This is the result of

After having some bad barbecue pork in the cafeteria, your stomach gets a bit woozy each time you  enter. The cafeteria is the ________ and your stomach feeling woozy is the ________.

conditioned stimulus; conditioned response

Burt had never been afraid of spiders, but at camp last summer he woke up to find a spider on his face. Since this event, he cries in fear every time that he sees a multilegged creature. For Burt, before the incident spiders had been a(n) ________; after the incident, spiders are a(n) ________.

neutral stimulus; conditioned stimulus

Robert's dog, Fuzzy, runs to Robert when he says, "Come." If one day, Fuzzy comes running when Robert says, "Dumb," we might say that Fuzzy has demonstrated

Merideth is an expert on wine. In a fine restaurant, she orders a glass of Santa Margarita pinot grigio. When the wine comes out she tastes it and claims that she received Mezzacorona pinot grigio instead. Merideth is demonstrating

In the "Little Albert" experiment when the rat was presented with the loud noise, the rat was the ________ and the noise was the ________

conditioned stimulus , unconditioned stimulus

You have an intense fear of high places and are asked to climb to the top of a high tower. As you ascend your therapist tells you to relax and gives you positive feedback on how you are doing; eventually you make it to the top. This therapeutic technique is known as

Judy has cancer and is receiving chemotherapy at a local hospital. Her parents notice that she now rejects food that she willingly ate last week (before chemotherapy). Through the process of ____, the food is now acting as a ____.

Aversive conditioning, conditioned stimulus

78) Which of the following is NOT an example of an operant? A) Sam tells a joke that has previously evoked much laughter. B) A dog salivates after seeing a bowl of meat. C) One-month-old Jamie sucks on a nipple in order to hear her mother's voice. D) A rat presses a lever to receive a food pellet. E) Abe repeatedly presses a button on a toy, because he likes the loud sound it makes

B) A dog salivates after seeing a bowl of meat. 

You hit the "off" button on your alarm clock when it rings. The ending of the obnoxious sound acts as a(n)

Professors who offer only a final exam grade for the entire semester grade are forgetting the operant conditioning principle that

contingencies must occur with more frequency to motivate behaviour 

As a marine biologist, you are trying to teach a dolphin to jump over a bar. At first, you reward the dolphin every time it swims near the bar. Then, you only reward her when she emerges from the water near the bar. Eventually, you reward the dolphin each time she jumps out of the water. Then, you only reward the dolphin when she jumps over the bar. This technique is an example of

I want my dog Fuzzy to roll over. At first I should use ________ reinforcement. After she has learned the behavior, I should change to a ________ schedule of reinforcement.

A telemarketer who is paid $25 for every 10 magazine subscriptions he sells is working according to a ________ schedule of reinforcement.

If you use money to buy ham, the money is a(n) ________, while the food is a(n) ________.

secondary reinforcer; primary reinforcer 

Negative reinforcement works best when the aversive stimulus

Is imposed by natural or impersonal conditions

Your brother comes home after curfew and is grounded by your parents. In the future, you come home on time. This type of learning is best explained by

If Tyler is given an allowance of $5.00 on every Friday for doing his chores, we should expect that he will

Not do many chores until just before allowance time 

Your family goes on a fishing trip for vacation. While you are fishing you are working on a ________ schedule of reinforcement.

Discuss five ways in which classical conditioning is different from operant conditioning

1. In c.c. stimuli precede the response; in o.c. rewards or punishments follow the behavior. 2. c.c. does not involve rewards or reinforcers; o.c. does. 3. c.c. works on a new stimulus creating an old reflexive behavior; o.c. creates new behaviors. 4. In c.c. extinction occurs by withholding the UCS.; in o.c. extinction is produced by withholding reinforcement. 5. in c.c. the learner is passive; in o.c. the learner is active.

Name and discuss the four major kinds of consequences that function in operant conditioning

The student should name positive and negative reinforcement and positive and negative punishment. The student should mention that reinforcement follows and strengthens a response, whereas punishment follows and weakens a response. The student should note that "positive" involves adding something (in the case of reinforcement it is usually something desired, whereas in punishment it is usually something aversive), whereas "negative" involves removing something (in the case of reinforcement it is usually something aversive, whereas in punishment it is usually something desired).

Choose one activity that you believe is learned through the behaviorist perspective and one that you believe is learned through the cognitive perspective. How can these two schools of thought coincide with one another?

We learn to have adverse feelings toward food that at one time has made us ill. This happens naturally and automatically and is a reflexive feeling when we initially eat and again see that particular food. We learn how to get from our house to school each day by using a cognitive map that we have created in our mind. We do not rely only on rewards and punishments for this task. New research regarding simple and complex neural networks may explain the difference between these two types of learning while at the same time linking them together. Simple connections may represent reflexive behaviors, while complex networks may be more reflective of cognitive or higher order learning.

You want to train your puppy to sit down and "play dead," explain how each of the following could be employed to teach your dog this "trick." Be sure to relate all of the examples back to the prompt. continuous schedule of reinforcement intermittent schedule of reinforcement shaping positive reinforcement negative reinforcement punishment

A continuous schedule of reinforcement should be employed when initially teaching the dog to sit. During the acquisition stage, a dog will learn much more quickly if it is reinforced every time it performs a given behavior. The dog should eventually be moved to a variable ratio schedule, in which it is only reinforced occasionally. This will prevent extinction, because the dog will not know when it is going to be reinforced and should continue the desired behavior. Shaping will be employed by reinforcing successive approximations to the desired behavior. As the dog moves toward the ground, it will get reinforced; then again when it goes further down; and so on until it is exhibiting the desired behavior. Positive reinforcement could be employed by giving the dog a treat each time the desired behavior occurs. Negative reinforcement could be employed by playing an annoying buzzing sound until the dog initially sits. Punishment could be employed by taking away the dog's favorite toy if they do not sit.

Briefly explain the difference between positive and negative punishment 

Positive punishment adds an aversive stimulus, whereas negative punishment takes away something that is desired.

Compare negative and positive reinforcement

In negative reinforcement an unpleasant stimulus is removed in order to increase the desired behavior. In positive reinforcement a desired stimulus follows a desired behavior in order to increase that behavior.