What type of study is time consuming expensive and has problems associated with attrition?

the scientific study of systematic processes of change and stability in children from conception through adolescence

growth of body and brain, including biological and physiological patterns of change in sensory capacities, motor skills, and health

pattern of change in mental abilities, such as learning, attention, memory, language, thinking, reasoning, and creativity

Social/Personality: (also known as psychosocial)

pattern of change in emotions, personality, and social relationships; in erikson’s eight-stage theory, the socially and culturally influenced process of development of the ego, or self

Prenatal period physical developments

conception occurs by normal fertilization or other means
the genetic endowment interacts with environmental influences from the start
basic body structures and organs form; brain growth spurt begins
physical growth is the most rapid in the life span
vulnerability to environmental influences is great

Prenatal period cognitive developments

abilities to learn and remember and to respond to sensory stimuli are developing

Prenatal period psychosocial developments

fetus responds to mother’s voice and develops a preference for it

Infancy and Toddlerhood physical developments

• all senses and body systems operate at birth to varying degrees

• the brain grows in complexity and is highly sensitive to environmental influence

• physical growth and development of motor skills are rapid

Infancy and Toddlerhood cognitive developments

• abilities to learn and remember are present, even in early weeks

• use of symbols and ability to solve problems develop by end of 2nd year

• comprehension and use of language develop rapidly
  

Infancy and Toddlerhood psychosocial developments

• attachments to parents and others form

• self-awareness develops

• shift from dependence to autonomy occurs

• interest in other children increases

Early childhood physical developments

• growth is steady; appearance becomes more slender and proportions are more adultlike

• appetite diminishes, and sleep problems are common

• handedness appears; fine and gross motor skills and strength improve

Early childhood cognitive developments

• thinking is somewhat egocentric, but understanding of other people’s perspectives grows.

• cognitive immaturity results in some illogical ideas about the world

• memory and language improve

• preschool experience is common, and kindergarten experience is more so

Early childhood psychosocial developments

self-concept and understanding of emotions become more complex; self-esteem is global
independence, initiative, and self-control increase
gender identity develops
play becomes more imaginative, more elaborate, and usually more social
altruism, aggression, and fearfulness are common
family is still the focus of social life, but other children become more important

Middle childhood physical developments

• growth slows

• strength and athletic skills improve

• respiratory illnesses are common, but health is generally better than at any other time in life span

Middle childhood cognitive developments

• egocentrism diminishes, children begin to think logically but concretely

• memory and language skills increase

• cognitive gains permit children to benefit from formal schooling

• some children show special educational needs and strengths

Middle childhood psychosocial developments

• self-concept becomes more complex, affecting self-esteem

• coregulation reflects gradual shift in control from parents to child

• peers assume central importance

Adolescence physical developments

• physical growth and other changes are rapid and profound

• reproductive maturity occurs

• major health risks arise from behavioral issues, such as eating disorders and drug abuse

Adolescence cognitive developments

• ability to think abstractly and use scientific reasoning develops

• immature thinking persists in some attitudes and behaviors

• education focuses on preparation for college or vocation

Adolescence psychosocial developments

• search for identity, including sexual identity, becomes central

• relationships with parents are generally good

• peer group may exert a positive or negative influence

groups of people born at about the same time

• provide an example of history-graded influences, which are biological and environmental influences associated with a particular historical movement

a child is a blank slate upon which society writes-- Locke; in this view, children entered the world with no specific characteristics or personalities-- instead they were entirely shaped by their experiences as they grew up

journals kept to record the early development of a single child; it was not until Darwin that the observation of children took a more systematic turn

Stage-like change (Discontinuous)

change occurs in distinct steps or stages; behavior and processes are qualitatively different at different stages

change is gradual, achievements at one level build on previous level; underlying developmental processes remain the same over the life span

a specific time when a given event, or its absence, has a specific impact on development

times in development when a given event or its absence usually has a strong effect on development

emphasis is on discovering inherited genetic traits and abilities

emphasis is on environmental influences that affect a person’s development

current theories emphasize growth and change throughout life, relatedness of different periods

infancy and adolescence emphasized by early developmentalists as most important periods

coherent set of logically related concepts; used to organize, explain, and predict data. inspires further research and predict its results by generating hypotheses, tentative explanations, or predictions

possible explanation for phenomena, used to predict the outcome of research

people create experiences and are motivated to learn about the world around them

children grasp experiences and this input molds them over time

• views human development as a series of predictable responses to stimuli

• people are like machines that react to environmental input

• predicts human behavior based upon internal and external forces at work

• seeks to identify the factors that make people behave as they do

views human development as internally initiated by an active organism, and as occurring in a sequence of qualitatively different stages

• sees children as active, growing organisms

• people initiate events, do not just react to them

• impetus for change is internal

• environmental influences can speed or slow development

change in number or amount, such as in height, weight, or size of vocabulary

change in kind, structure, or organization

Traditional 5 Perspectives of Development

Psycho-analytic, Learning, Cognitive, Contextual, Evolutionary/Sociobiological

behavior is controlled by powerful unconscious urges; personality is influenced by society and develops through a series of crises

people are responders; the environment controls behavior; children learn in a social context by observing and imitating models; they are contributors to learning

qualitative changes in thought occur between infancy and adolescence; children are active initiators of development; social interaction is central to cognitive development; human beings are processors of symbols

development occurs through interaction between a developing person and five surrounding, interlocking contextual systems of influences, from microsystem to chronosystem

Evolutionary/sociobiological

human beings are the product of adaptive processes; evolutionary and biological bases for behavior and predisposition toward learning are important

development is seen as occurring in a series of distinct stages, like stair step

Examples of stage-like theories of development

• Freud’s psychosexual stages

• Erikson’s psychosocial stages

• Piaget’s cognitive stages

Brofenbrener’s Bioecological theory

The child is influenced by multiple levels of environment.

• Microsystem (bidirectional influences)---> Mesosystem (interaction of any two microsystems) ---> Exosystem ---> Macrosystem (economic and political system, dominant beliefs and ideologies)---> Chronosystem (dimension of time)

interpretation of non-numerical data, such as subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs

• focuses on the how and why of behavior

• informs both how they collect data as well as its interpretation

deals with objectively measurable data; uses scientific method

system of established principles and processes of scientific inquiry

• Identifies a problem to be studied, formulates a hypothesis to be tested by research,collects data,analyzes the data, forms tentative conclusions, disseminates findings

case studies, naturalistic studies, ethnographic studies, laboratory/analogue observations, correlational studies, experiments

study of a single subject, such as an individual or family. offers useful in-depth information

people are observed in their normal setting, with no attempt to manipulate behavior

in-depth study of a culture, which uses a combination of methods including participant observation; borrowed from field of anthropology and used to investigate cultural questions. uses a combination of methods, including informal, unstructured interviewing and participant observation

laboratory/analogue observations

participants are observed in the laboratory, with no attempt to manipulate behavior

intended to discover whether a statistical relationship between variable exists

rigorously controlled, replicable procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess the effect of one on the other

doesn’t accurately represent the population, may not apply

group receiving the treatment under study

group of people, similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under study

Blind, double-blind studies

neither participants nor experimenters know who is receiving treatment and who is instead receiving an inert placebo.

condition over which the experimenter has direct control

condition that may or may not change as a result of changes in the independent variable

assignment of participants in an experiment to groups in such a way that each person has an equal chance of being placed in any group

• data are collected on people of different ages at the same time

• can show similarities and differences among age groups; speedy, economical; presents no problem of attrition or repeated testing.

• cannot establish age effects; masks individual differences; can be confounded by cohort effects

• data are collected on same person or persons over a period of time

• can show age-related change or continuity; avoids confounding age with cohort effects

• is time consuming, expensive; presents problems of attrition, bias in sample, and effects of repeated testing; results may be valid only for cohort tested or sample studied

• data are collected on successive cross-sectional or longitudinal samples

• can avoid drawbacks of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs

• requires large amount of time and effort and analysis of very complex data

several hundred million are produced in testicles each day; enter the vagina through ejaculation and attempt to reach the cervix, very few will arrive in the fallopian tubes when fertilization takes place

2 million in their ovaries, each contained in a follicle; during ovulation, when sexual maturity is attained, a mature follicle is ruptured and expelled from the ovary; swept through the fallopian tube toward the uterus

Union of sperm and ovum to produce a zygote; takes place in the fallopian tubes

genetic transmission of heritable characteristics from parents to offspring

sequence of bases within the DNA molecule; set of rules that govern the formation of proteins that determine the structure and functions of living cells

adenine, guanine, thymine, cytosine-- make up the genetic code

coils of DNA that consist of genes

small segments of DNA located in definite positions on particular chromosomes; functional units of heredity; located in a definite position on chromosome; contains thousands of base pairs

process by which the non-sex cells divide in half over and over again; DNA replicated itself, so that each newly formed cells has the same DNA structure as all the others

type of cell division which the sex cells undergo when they are developing; each sex cell ends up with only 23 chromosomes

pattern of inheritance in which, when a child receives different alleles, only the dominant on is expressed

pattern of inheritance in which a child receives identical recessive alleles, only the dominant one is expressed

pattern of inheritance in which multiple genes at different sites on chromosomes affect a complex trait

two or more alternative forms of a gene that can occupy the same position on paired chromosomes and affect the same gene

genetic makeup of a person, containing both expressed and unexpressed characteristics

observable characteristics of a person

Multifactorial transmission

combination of genetic and environmental factors to produce certain complex traits

mechanism that turns genes on or off and determines functions of body cells

Birth defects via dominant sex-linked patterns

Achrondroplasia-type of dwarfism; Huntington’s disease

Birth defects via recessive sex-linked patterns

Tav-Sachs; Sickle-cell anemia- can be incomplete dominance

errors in cell division, extra or missing chromosome

quantitative study of relative hereditary and environmental influences on behavior

statistical estimate of contribution of heredity to individual differences in a specific trait within a given population at a particular time

measure the degree to which biological relatives share certain traits; relation between closeness of familial relationship and degree of similarity on trait

look at similarities between adopted children and their adoptive parents

compare pairs of monozygotic twins with same-sex dizygotic twins

level of similarity shared by twins on same trait or disorder

potential variability, depending on environmental conditions, in the expression of a hereditary trait

limited variance of expression of certain inherited characteristics

Genotype-Environment Interaction

effect of the interaction between genes and the environment on phenotypic variation

Genotype-Environment Correlation

tendency of certain genetic and environmental influences to reinforce each other; may be passive, reactive (evocative), or active

parents, who provide the genes that predispose a child toward a trait, also tend to provide an environment that encourages the development of that trait

children with differing genetic makeups evoke different responses from adults

as children grow older, they select experiences consistent with their genetic tendencies; i.e. niche picking

tender, swollen breasts or nipples; fatigue; need to take extra naps; slight bleeding or cramping; nausea with or without vomiting; food cravings; frequent urination; frequent,mild headaches; constipation; mood swings; faintness and dizziness; raised basal body temperature

period of development between conception and birth

age of an unborn baby, usually dated from the first day of an expectant mother’s last menstrual cycle

fertilized ovum, or zygote, grows into an embryo and then a fetus

molecules that are switched on after fertilization

development proceeds in head-to-tail direction; upper parts of the body develop before lower parts of the trunk

development proceeds from within to without; parts of the body near the center develop before the extremities

• first stage in prenatal development (first 2 weeks)

• characterized by: rapid cell division, increasing complexity and differentiation

• implantation in the wall of the uterus

attachment of the blastocyst to the uterine wall, occurring at about day 6

• 2 to 8 weeks

• Characterized by rapid growth and development of major body systems develop rapidly

• Severely defective embryos usually do not survive beyond the first trimester of pregnancy
• Organogenesis
• spontaneous abortion can occur
  

process in which the organs and major body systems develop rapidly (respiratory, digestive, and nervous)

• 8 weeks to birth

• characterized by increased differentiation of body parts and greatly enlarged body size

• fetus adds a layer of fat in preparation for birth

Times of vulnerability per Central nervous system

3 to 5 weeks after conception, less common from 6-38 weeks

Times of vulnerability for the heart

3-6 weeks after conception, less common from 6-8 weeks

Times of vulnerability for arms

4-8 weeks after conception, less common during 8 weeks

Time of vulnerability for the eyes

4-7 weeks after conception, less common from 8-38 weeks

Time of vulnerability for the legs

4-8 weeks after conception, less common from 8-9 weeks

Time of vulnerability for the teeth

7-9 weeks after conception, less common from 9-16 weeks

Time of vulnerability for the palate

7-9 weeks after conception, less common during 9 weeks

Time of vulnerability for the External genitalia

7-9 weeks after conception, less common during the rest of gestation

Time of vulnerability for the ears

4-8 weeks after conception, less common from 9-16 weeks

Maternal factors on prenatal development

the prenatal environment is the mother’s body; everything that affects the mother’s well-being may alter her unborn child’s environment and influence its growth and health, such as teratogens

Outside Environmental factors on prenatal development

air pollution, chemicals, radiation, extreme heat and humidity

Paternal factors on prenatal development

exposure to lead, marijuana or tobacco smoke, large amounts of alcohol or radiation, DES, or pesticides

Prenatal care (disparities)

increasing number of multiple births are heightened risk of death within the first year, benefits are not evenly distributed, ethnic disparity in fetal and post-birth mortality

physical examinations and the taking of medical and family histories, vaccinations for rubella and hepatitis B, risk screening for genetic disorders and infectious diseases such as STDs; counsels women to avoid smoking and alcohol, maintain a healthy body weight, and take folic acid supplements

History of birthing techniques

• Prior to the 20th century, birth was a female social ritual

• Home deliveries and midwives

a surgical act, very medical and impersonal

at home with trained midwives

demedicalize birthing experience; rooming-in policies

• Parturition: Process of giving birth

• Begins about two weeks before delivery

• Determined by increase in the rate of production of corticotropin-releasing hormone

• Uterine, cervical, and other changes occur

Dilation of the Cervix, Descent and emergence of the baby, Expulsion of the placenta

• Lasts 12 to 14 hours

• Regular and increasingly uterine contractions

• Stage lasts until the cervix is fully open

Descent and emergence of the baby

• Lasts 1 to 2 hours

• Baby's head begins to move through the cervix into the vaginal canal

• Baby completely emerges out

Expulsion of the placenta

• Lasts 10 minutes to 1 hour

• Placenta and the remainder of the umbilical cord are expelled

Electrical fetal monitoring

• Tracks the fetus's heartbeat during labor and delivery

• Indicates how the fetal heart is responding to the stress of uterine contractions

• Provides valuable information in high-risk deliveries

Drawbacks of electronic fetal monitoring

• Costly

• Restricts the mother's movements during labor

• Has an extremely high false-positive rate

usual method of giving birth; baby is expelled out of the vagina

surgically removing the baby from the uterus

Cesarean delivery is done when

• Labor progresses too slowly

• Fetus seems to be in trouble

• Vaginal bleeding

• Breech or transverse position of fetus

• Head is too big to pass through the mother's pelvis

Disadvantages of Cesarean Delivery for the Mother

• Bleeding

• Infection

• Damage to pelvic organs

• Postoperative pain

• Risks of problems in future pregnancies

Disadvantages of Cesarean Delivery for the Baby

• Deprives the baby of hormones that:

• Clear the lungs of excess fluids

• Mobilize

Local: pendual block; Analgesic: regional; epidural or spinal

Which type of study is time

Which type of study is time

In which type of study are the effects of age and the effects of time of measurement confounded with one another?

In what type of research design are several different age groups of participants studied at one point in time a case study B longitudinal C cross