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Classical Management TheoryHere we focus on three well-known early writers on management: Henri Fayol See also Section 5a Personal management skills (e.g. Managing: time, stress, difficult people, meetings) for more references to Fayol, Taylor and Weber.Definition of management: Management takes place within a structured organisational setting with prescribed roles. It is directed towards the achievement of aims and objectives through influencing the efforts of others. Classical management theory
Henri Fayol (1841 - 1925), France
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Many of these principles have been absorbed into modern day organisations, but they were not designed to cope with conditions of rapid change. The language used by Fayol may appear dictatorial, however if we examine Fayol’s work and concepts, it is clear that Fayol’s ‘command’ is similar to a description of what we would call empowering manager today. F W Taylor - (1856 - 1915), USA- The Scientific Management School Taylorism involved breaking down the components of manual tasks in manufacturing environments, timing each movement ('time and motion' studies) so that there could be a proven best way to perform each task. Thus employees could be trained to be 'first class' within their job. This was a scientific system where every task became discrete and specialised. Specialised services are provided in the NHS, and these management techniques could prove useful in these areas, to review productivity. Key points about Taylor, who is credited with what we now call 'Taylorism':
For the managers, scientific management required them to:
For the workers, scientific management required them to:
The benefits arising from scientific management can be summarised as follows:
The drawbacks were mainly for the workers:
Therefore, in summary, while the scientific management technique has been employed to increase productivity and efficiency both in private and public services, it has also had the disadvantages of discounting many of the human aspects of employment. Taylor’s ideas on management and workers demonstrates justice for both parties (employer and employee).Taylorism prevailed in the '30s through to the early '60s - and in many organisations considerably later than this. Peters and Waterman in the 70s/80 and Senge late '80s/early '90s led us towards what we now call 'systems thinking' where the rights and potential wider contributions of employees received considerably greater emphasis. Max Weber (1864 - 1924), Germany Weber described bureaucracy as the most efficient way of working. Bureaucracy in this context is the organisational form of certain dominant characteristics such as a hierarchy of authority and a system of rules. Bureaucracy in a sense of red tape or officialdom should not be used as these meanings are value-ridden and only emphasise very negative aspects of the original Max Weber model. Authority is distinguished from power by Weber. Power is a unilateral thing - it enables a person to force another to behave in a certain way, whether by means of strength or by rewards. Authority, on the other hand, implies acceptance of the rules by those over whom it is to be exercised within limits agreeable to the subordinates that Weber refers to in discussing legitimate authority. Weber presented three types of legitimate authority (also discussed in Section 5a): Traditional authority: where acceptance of those in authority arose from tradition and custom. It is the rational-legal authority form that exists in most organisations today and this is the form to which Weber ascribed the term 'bureaucracy'. The main features of bureaucracy according to Weber were:
It is no coincidence that Weber's writings were at a time of the major industrial revolutions and the growth of large complex organisations out of the cottage industries and/or entrepreneurial businesses. The efficiency of this rational and logistical organisation shares a considerable amount of common ground with the thinking of Fayol. In particular, features such as scalar chain, specialisation, authority and the definition of jobs which were so essential to successful management as described by Fayol, are typical of bureaucracy. There is also little doubt that Weber's ideas concerning specific spheres of competence and employment based on technical competence would have considerable appeal for Taylor's scientific managers. Advantages
Disadvantages Subsequent analysis by other researchers have identified many disadvantages:
Human Relations TheoriesElton Mayo: Hawthorne studies Where Classical theorists were concerned with structure and mechanics of organisations, the theorists of human relations were, understandably, concerned with the human factors. The foci of human relations theory is on motivation, group motivation and leadership. At the centre of these foci are assumptions about relationship between employer and employee. Schein (1965) and Mayo (1933)
A 'motive' is described as a need or driving force within a person. The process of motivation involves choosing between alternative forms of action in order to achieve some desired end or goal Alternative forms of action of motivation depend on a manager's assumptions about his/her subordinates:
Elton Mayo : Hawthorne Studies The ground-breaking Hawthorne studies carried out in the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric Company (USA) 1927 - 32. Stage 1 (1924 -27) Study of the physical surroundings (lighting level) on productivity of workers. Control group and experimental group previously had similar productivity before study began. Control Group = constant lighting level Result Product leader called Mayo and colleagues to explain the results. Stage 2 (1927 - 29) 'Relay assembly room stage' Result Output increased even when worsening conditions Hypothesis was now that it was the attitudes of subjects at work and not the physical conditions. This gave rise to the 'Hawthorne Effect' - employees were responding not so much to changes in the environment as to the fact they were the centre of attention - a special group. Stage 3 (1928 - 30) A Total of 20,000 interviews were collected with the workers on employee attitudes to working conditions, their supervision and their jobs. Stage 4 (1932) 'Bank winning observation room' This time the new subjects (14 men) put in separate room for six months. Result Advantages
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Neo-Human Relations TheoryThis group were social psychologists who developed more complex theories: Maslow See also Section 5a Motivation, creativity and innovation in individuals, and their relationship to group and team dynamics for more references to Maslow, McGregor, and Herzberg. Maslow is often-quoted still today, having developed a seminal theory of the needs of human beings. Herzberg's and McGregor's neo-human relations theories both focus on motivation and leadership, but their theories are very different. In this group we find a particular focus on human motivation including:
Maslow (1943) Heirarchy of Needs
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Whilst this research provides a basic framework, life is complex. McGregor (Theory X and Theory Y) Managers were perceived by McGregor, whose theories are still often quoted, to make two noticeably different sets of broad assumptions about their employees.
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Herzberg’s theory Herzberg showed that satisfaction at work came from different factors to dissatisfaction. Dissatisfaction was not simply the opposite of the factors which caused satisfaction. 200 engineers and accountants were asked to recall the times/occasions when they experienced satisfactory and unsatisfactory feeling about their jobs. Later this also involved manual and clerical staff similar results were found. Herzberg showed two categories of findings: Motivators - factors giving rise to satisfaction
Other features include:
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Likert Described 'new patterns of management' based on the behaviours of managers. Four main patterns:
Advantages Essentially Likert's work gives more alternatives in the spectrum between Theory X and Theory Y of McGregor Disadvantage
Argyris Studied the needs of people and the needs of organisation. He felt that classical models of organisation promoted 'immaturity' (see below). He felt that it was important to understand the needs of people and integrate them with needs of organisation. Only in this way, he said, can employees become co-operative rather than defensive or aggressive
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System TheoriesAttention began to focus on organisations as 'systems' with a number of inter-related sub-systems. The 'systems approach' attempted to synthesise the classical approaches ( organisations without people') with the later human relations approaches that focused on the psychological and social aspects, emphasised human needs - almost 'people without organisations'. Systems theory focuses on complexity and interdependence of relationships. A system is composed of regularly interacting or interdependent groups of activities/parts that form the emergent whole. Part of systems theory, system dynamics is a method for understanding the dynamic behaviour of complex systems. The basis of the method is the recognition that the structure of any system -- the many circular, interlocking, sometimes time-delayed relationships among its components -- is often just as important in determining its behaviour as the individual components themselves. Early systems theorists aimed at finding a general systems theory that could explain all systems in all fields of science. The term goes back to Bertalanffy’s (1951) basic work 'General Systems Theory'. Sociologists like Niklas Luhmann (1994) also worked towards a general systems theory. As of today, whilst no systems theory can live up to this claim, there are general system principles which are found in all systems. For example, every system is an interaction of elements manifesting as a whole. Miller and Rice (1967) likened the commercial and industrial organisation to biological organisms. Systems theories took much more of an holistic view of organisations, focusing on the total work organisation and the inter-relationships between structures and human behaviours producing a wide range of variables within organisations. They help us understand the interactions between individuals, groups, organisations, communities, larger social systems, and their environments and help us enhance our understanding of how human behaviour operates in a context. A system is a part, and it is a whole, at the same time. An example of this in the Modern NHS is care pathways for patients which will often require a range of health disciplines to work together and will often also include professionals from the local authority. System Theory Key Terms: Boundary - an imaginary line around system of focus. Regulates flow of energy (e.g. information, resources) into and out of the system. Focal system - the system on which you are concentrating at any given time (e.g.: a manufacturing plant or a family). Subsystem - a part of the focal system (e.g., in a family, it may be children or parents) sometimes referred to as 'sibling subsystem' and 'parental subsystem'). Suprasystem - is external to focal system; it is its environment. May include place of employment, school, neighbourhood, church, social service system. Open system - Relatively open systems have a freer exchange of information and resources within the system and also allow relatively free passage of energy from and to the outside of the system. Closed system - is more self-contained and isolated from their environment. The business organisation is an Open System: there is continual interaction with the broader external environment of which it forms a part. The systems approach considers the organisation within its total environment and emphasises the importance of 'multiple channels of interaction'. Thus the systems approach views organisations as a whole and involves the study of the organisation in terms of the relationship between technical and social variables with the systems. Thus changes in one part, technical or social, will affect other parts and therefore the whole system. It was Trist (1963) and others at the Tavistock Institute of Human relations who focused in on socio-technical systems arising from their study of the effects of changing technology in the coal-mining industries in the 1940s. The following Timeline gives perspective to the development of Systems Theory:
Tavistock Institute of Human Relations
Contingency Theories From the late 1950s, a new approach to organisation theory was developed which became known as contingency theory. This theory argues that there is no 'one best way' to structure an organisation. An organisation will face a range of choices when determining how it should be structured, how it should be organised, how it should be managed. Successful organisations adopt structures that are an appropriate response to a number of variables, or contingencies, which influence both the needs of the organisation and how it works.
Contingency theorists including Pugh, Burns and Stalker and Laurence and Lorsch have found that three contingencies are particularly important in influencing an organisation's structure. These are:
There are two significant implications of contingency theory:
References
© K Enock 2006, C Beynon 2017 Which of fayol's principles states that a manager should treat employees and peers with respect and justice quizlet?Fayol's principle states that materials and people should be placed and maintained in the proper location within an organization. According to Fayol's equity principle, a manager should treat employees and peers with and .
Which principle of management suggests that employees should be treated with justice and kindness?Equity. Equity means combination of fairness, kindness & justice. The employees should be treated with kindness & equity if devotion is expected of them. It implies that managers should be fair and impartial while dealing with the subordinates.
Which fayol principle states that each worker should report to one and only one boss?Unity of command: This principle states that an employee should have one and only one supervisor to whom he or she is directly responsible.
What are the fayol 14 principles of management?Henri Fayol 14 Principles of Management. Division of Work- Henri believed that segregating work in the workforce amongst the worker will enhance the quality of the product. ... . Authority and Responsibility- ... . Discipline- ... . Unity of Command- ... . Unity of Direction- ... . Subordination of Individual Interest- ... . Remuneration- ... . Centralization-. |