Which of the following best explains how this photograph from the Second World War can be connected to the Cold War that began shortly afterward quizlet?

(Picture of the four human races that are illustrated and used in middle schools in France in the 1880s and 1890s)

A caption below the image read:
The White Race, the most perfect of the human races, lives mostly in Europe, West Asia, North Africa, and North America. It is characterized by its oval head and rather thin lips. The complexion may vary in color but is generally light.
The Yellow Race occupies mostly East Asia, China, and Japan. It is characterized by its high cheekbones and almond-shaped eyes.
The Red Race, which once upon a time inhabited all of North and South America, has reddish skin, deeply set eyes, and a long and arched nose.↵ (PPT) The Black Race, which occupies mostly Africa and the southern parts of Oceania, has skin that is very dark, dark brown eyes, and curly hair.

The image and its caption provide evidence that would best help explain the ideas of which of the following ideologies that emerged in the late nineteenth century?

(Picture of the four human races that are illustrated and used in middle schools in France in the 1880s and 1890s)

A caption below the image read:
The White Race, the most perfect of the human races, lives mostly in Europe, West Asia, North Africa, and North America. It is characterized by its oval head and rather thin lips. The complexion may vary in color but is generally light.
The Yellow Race occupies mostly East Asia, China, and Japan. It is characterized by its high cheekbones and almond-shaped eyes.
The Red Race, which once upon a time inhabited all of North and South America, has reddish skin, deeply set eyes, and a long and arched nose.↵ (PPT) The Black Race, which occupies mostly Africa and the southern parts of Oceania, has skin that is very dark, dark brown eyes, and curly hair.

Based on the context of European imperialism in the late nineteenth century, a historian examining the image and its caption would likely explain that they provide evidence of how France sought to

(Picture of the four human races that are illustrated and used in middle schools in France in the 1880s and 1890s)

A caption below the image read:
The White Race, the most perfect of the human races, lives mostly in Europe, West Asia, North Africa, and North America. It is characterized by its oval head and rather thin lips. The complexion may vary in color but is generally light.
The Yellow Race occupies mostly East Asia, China, and Japan. It is characterized by its high cheekbones and almond-shaped eyes.
The Red Race, which once upon a time inhabited all of North and South America, has reddish skin, deeply set eyes, and a long and arched nose.↵ (PPT) The Black Race, which occupies mostly Africa and the southern parts of Oceania, has skin that is very dark, dark brown eyes, and curly hair.

Although ideas of European superiority over non-Europeans had existed for centuries, views such as those expressed in the passage provide evidence of an important change in the late nineteenth century that is best explained by the fact that they

"OBJECTIVES OF YOUR JOURNEY

In these parts of West Africa, France has obtained a few treaties with powerful chiefs, on the basis of which she claims immense regions in the great bend of the Niger River. She also sends French adventurers into a recognized British sphere of influence to make further treaties with native persons who claim to be the rulers or kings of certain regions. The goal of your journey therefore will be to

(a) in places where the French pretend they have made treaties with the native rulers, to obtain a written declaration from the rulers that such statements are false, and then to make treaties for us;

(b) in places where the French have made no such pretense, to secure treaties accompanied by a short declaration that no previous treaties have been made with any European; . . .

(d) to collect detailed information of every kind about the regions you visit, but especially to make inquiries as to the existence of gold—either gold sands in rivers or gold lodes in rock; . . .

(f) to impress upon all African chiefs how advantageous it would be for them to have Europeans bringing goods to their country, which can only be done if they sign the treaties; . . .

(h) to note especially carefully the prevalence of gum arabic trees, shea butter trees, and rubber vines* in each region you visit."

Letter from the directors of the British Royal Niger Company to its agent, Captain Frederick Lugard, directing him to travel up the Niger River in West Africa, 1894

*African trees that were used by Europeans in the production of cosmetics and processed food additives (gum Arabic), soap and candles (Shea butter), and tires and machine transmission belts (rubber)

The rival British and French claims over the Niger River region in the 1890s were most directly a part of which of the following processes?

"OBJECTIVES OF YOUR JOURNEY

In these parts of West Africa, France has obtained a few treaties with powerful chiefs, on the basis of which she claims immense regions in the great bend of the Niger River. She also sends French adventurers into a recognized British sphere of influence to make further treaties with native persons who claim to be the rulers or kings of certain regions. The goal of your journey therefore will be to

(a) in places where the French pretend they have made treaties with the native rulers, to obtain a written declaration from the rulers that such statements are false, and then to make treaties for us;

(b) in places where the French have made no such pretense, to secure treaties accompanied by a short declaration that no previous treaties have been made with any European; . . .

(d) to collect detailed information of every kind about the regions you visit, but especially to make inquiries as to the existence of gold—either gold sands in rivers or gold lodes in rock; . . .

(f) to impress upon all African chiefs how advantageous it would be for them to have Europeans bringing goods to their country, which can only be done if they sign the treaties; . . .

(h) to note especially carefully the prevalence of gum arabic trees, shea butter trees, and rubber vines* in each region you visit."

Letter from the directors of the British Royal Niger Company to its agent, Captain Frederick Lugard, directing him to travel up the Niger River in West Africa, 1894

*African trees that were used by Europeans in the production of cosmetics and processed food additives (gum Arabic), soap and candles (Shea butter), and tires and machine transmission belts (rubber)

The instructions to Lugard in articles (d) and (f) best reflect which of the following regarding the purpose of the board of directors' letter?

"OBJECTIVES OF YOUR JOURNEY

In these parts of West Africa, France has obtained a few treaties with powerful chiefs, on the basis of which she claims immense regions in the great bend of the Niger River. She also sends French adventurers into a recognized British sphere of influence to make further treaties with native persons who claim to be the rulers or kings of certain regions. The goal of your journey therefore will be to

(a) in places where the French pretend they have made treaties with the native rulers, to obtain a written declaration from the rulers that such statements are false, and then to make treaties for us;

(b) in places where the French have made no such pretense, to secure treaties accompanied by a short declaration that no previous treaties have been made with any European; . . .

(d) to collect detailed information of every kind about the regions you visit, but especially to make inquiries as to the existence of gold—either gold sands in rivers or gold lodes in rock; . . .

(f) to impress upon all African chiefs how advantageous it would be for them to have Europeans bringing goods to their country, which can only be done if they sign the treaties; . . .

(h) to note especially carefully the prevalence of gum arabic trees, shea butter trees, and rubber vines* in each region you visit."

Letter from the directors of the British Royal Niger Company to its agent, Captain Frederick Lugard, directing him to travel up the Niger River in West Africa, 1894

*African trees that were used by Europeans in the production of cosmetics and processed food additives (gum Arabic), soap and candles (Shea butter), and tires and machine transmission belts (rubber)

Which aspect of the historical situation in West Africa in the 1890s best explains the board of directors' instructions to Lugard in article (h) of the letter?

"By 1830 an English textile worker was already producing with his mechanical spinning machine 350 to 400 times as much yarn per hour as an Indian craftsman with his traditional spinning wheel. The consequences for Indian textile production were fatal. In 1814 India imported one million meters of English textiles, in 1820 it imported 13 million and in 1890 more than two billion. British rule in India gave the British manufacturers free rein and made the protection of indigenous producers impossible. It stands to reason that Karl Marx condemned the driving force behind British expansion in India by calling it the 'millocracy' [meaning rule by the owners of textile mills]. . . .

To be sure, the immense productivity of English textile workers from the early nineteenth century on made this branch of British industry superior to all of its former competitors, colonial and noncolonial alike. But while other countries could shield themselves from this danger by introducing protectionist tariffs, such protection did not exist in the British colonies. So here, in the case of the destruction of Indian textile industry, we see the importance of the colonial situation, namely the colonies' political dependence on the West, in arresting their economic development."

Henk L. Wesseling, Dutch historian of colonial South and Southeast Asia, The European Colonial Empires, 1815-1919, book published in 2003

The economic statistics cited by Wesseling in the first paragraph are most likely intended to illustrate which aspect of the nineteenth-century global context?

"By 1830 an English textile worker was already producing with his mechanical spinning machine 350 to 400 times as much yarn per hour as an Indian craftsman with his traditional spinning wheel. The consequences for Indian textile production were fatal. In 1814 India imported one million meters of English textiles, in 1820 it imported 13 million and in 1890 more than two billion. British rule in India gave the British manufacturers free rein and made the protection of indigenous producers impossible. It stands to reason that Karl Marx condemned the driving force behind British expansion in India by calling it the 'millocracy' [meaning rule by the owners of textile mills]. . . .

To be sure, the immense productivity of English textile workers from the early nineteenth century on made this branch of British industry superior to all of its former competitors, colonial and noncolonial alike. But while other countries could shield themselves from this danger by introducing protectionist tariffs, such protection did not exist in the British colonies. So here, in the case of the destruction of Indian textile industry, we see the importance of the colonial situation, namely the colonies' political dependence on the West, in arresting their economic development."

Henk L. Wesseling, Dutch historian of colonial South and Southeast Asia, The European Colonial Empires, 1815-1919, book published in 2003

Wesseling's argument in the second paragraph best illustrates which of the following important distinctions within the practice of imperialism in the nineteenth century?

"By 1830 an English textile worker was already producing with his mechanical spinning machine 350 to 400 times as much yarn per hour as an Indian craftsman with his traditional spinning wheel. The consequences for Indian textile production were fatal. In 1814 India imported one million meters of English textiles, in 1820 it imported 13 million and in 1890 more than two billion. British rule in India gave the British manufacturers free rein and made the protection of indigenous producers impossible. It stands to reason that Karl Marx condemned the driving force behind British expansion in India by calling it the 'millocracy' [meaning rule by the owners of textile mills]. . . .

To be sure, the immense productivity of English textile workers from the early nineteenth century on made this branch of British industry superior to all of its former competitors, colonial and noncolonial alike. But while other countries could shield themselves from this danger by introducing protectionist tariffs, such protection did not exist in the British colonies. So here, in the case of the destruction of Indian textile industry, we see the importance of the colonial situation, namely the colonies' political dependence on the West, in arresting their economic development."

Henk L. Wesseling, Dutch historian of colonial South and Southeast Asia, The European Colonial Empires, 1815-1919, book published in 2003

Which other process in the mid to late nineteenth century most directly led to situations in which non-Western countries found it very difficult to protect their indigenous industries from Western competition, as described in the passage?

"By 1830 an English textile worker was already producing with his mechanical spinning machine 350 to 400 times as much yarn per hour as an Indian craftsman with his traditional spinning wheel. The consequences for Indian textile production were fatal. In 1814 India imported one million meters of English textiles, in 1820 it imported 13 million and in 1890 more than two billion. British rule in India gave the British manufacturers free rein and made the protection of indigenous producers impossible. It stands to reason that Karl Marx condemned the driving force behind British expansion in India by calling it the 'millocracy' [meaning rule by the owners of textile mills]. . . .

To be sure, the immense productivity of English textile workers from the early nineteenth century on made this branch of British industry superior to all of its former competitors, colonial and noncolonial alike. But while other countries could shield themselves from this danger by introducing protectionist tariffs, such protection did not exist in the British colonies. So here, in the case of the destruction of Indian textile industry, we see the importance of the colonial situation, namely the colonies' political dependence on the West, in arresting their economic development."

Henk L. Wesseling, Dutch historian of colonial South and Southeast Asia, The European Colonial Empires, 1815-1919, book published in 2003

Which of the following aspects of the Marxist critique of capitalism would be most useful in understanding why the author of the passage chose to invoke Karl Marx's thought in the first paragraph?

"Italians establish everywhere in Argentina the types of businesses in which they are employed in Italy: a pasta factory, a distillery, a sawmill, a lime furnace. Indeed, our compatriots engage in all types of industries and trades. Some are money brokers, some are blacksmiths, some are jewelers, some build houses, some are mechanics, and some are mill owners. In the rural districts, many people engage in multiple trades. Our immigrants in these areas might at once be a blacksmith and a shoemaker, a cook and a tailor, or a porter and a bricklayer. Our immigrants are willing, gracious, happy, and always trusting in a better future."

Giosuè Notari, Italian ambassador in the city of Córdoba in Argentina, report to the Italian government describing the state of Italian immigrants in the city and province of Córdoba, 1905

Which of the following best explains why people from nonindustrialized regions constituted the majority of migrants in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?

"Italians establish everywhere in Argentina the types of businesses in which they are employed in Italy: a pasta factory, a distillery, a sawmill, a lime furnace. Indeed, our compatriots engage in all types of industries and trades. Some are money brokers, some are blacksmiths, some are jewelers, some build houses, some are mechanics, and some are mill owners. In the rural districts, many people engage in multiple trades. Our immigrants in these areas might at once be a blacksmith and a shoemaker, a cook and a tailor, or a porter and a bricklayer. Our immigrants are willing, gracious, happy, and always trusting in a better future."

Giosuè Notari, Italian ambassador in the city of Córdoba in Argentina, report to the Italian government describing the state of Italian immigrants in the city and province of Córdoba, 1905

Which of the following best explains why transoceanic migration increased significantly in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?

"Italians establish everywhere in Argentina the types of businesses in which they are employed in Italy: a pasta factory, a distillery, a sawmill, a lime furnace. Indeed, our compatriots engage in all types of industries and trades. Some are money brokers, some are blacksmiths, some are jewelers, some build houses, some are mechanics, and some are mill owners. In the rural districts, many people engage in multiple trades. Our immigrants in these areas might at once be a blacksmith and a shoemaker, a cook and a tailor, or a porter and a bricklayer. Our immigrants are willing, gracious, happy, and always trusting in a better future."

Giosuè Notari, Italian ambassador in the city of Córdoba in Argentina, report to the Italian government describing the state of Italian immigrants in the city and province of Córdoba, 1905

Which of the following best explains a difference between European and South Asian migration during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries?

EAST INDIAN POPULATIONS IN THE CARIBBEAN, CIRCA 2000
Country of Territory
Population of East Indian Descent
Population of East Indian Descent as a Percentage of the Total Population
Guyana 317,000 39.80
Trinidad and Tobago 468,500 35.43
Suriname 161,000 27.00
Guadeloupe (French) 60,000 15.00
Martinique (French) 57,700 13.00
Grenada 12,000 10.80
Jamaica 96,000 8.20
British Virgin Islands 2,300 8.00
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 5,900 6.00
French Guiana 12,000 5.20
Saint Lucia 5,200 3.15
Saint Kitts and Nevis 1,500 3.00
Belize 7,600 2.10
Barbados 4,000 1.75
Considering global trends in late-nineteenth-century migration movements, the Indian migrations to the Caribbean that produced the demographic situation shown in the table most likely led to which of the following short-term effects?

EAST INDIAN POPULATIONS IN THE CARIBBEAN, CIRCA 2000
Country of Territory
Population of East Indian Descent
Population of East Indian Descent as a Percentage of the Total Population
Guyana 317,000 39.80
Trinidad and Tobago 468,500 35.43
Suriname 161,000 27.00
Guadeloupe (French) 60,000 15.00
Martinique (French) 57,700 13.00
Grenada 12,000 10.80
Jamaica 96,000 8.20
British Virgin Islands 2,300 8.00
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 5,900 6.00
French Guiana 12,000 5.20
Saint Lucia 5,200 3.15
Saint Kitts and Nevis 1,500 3.00
Belize 7,600 2.10
Barbados 4,000 1.75

Considering global trends in late-nineteenth-century migration movements, the specific migrations that produced the demographic situation shown in the table most likely contributed to which of the following social or political changes in India?

EAST INDIAN POPULATIONS IN THE CARIBBEAN, CIRCA 2000
Country of Territory
Population of East Indian Descent
Population of East Indian Descent as a Percentage of the Total Population
Guyana 317,000 39.80
Trinidad and Tobago 468,500 35.43
Suriname 161,000 27.00
Guadeloupe (French) 60,000 15.00
Martinique (French) 57,700 13.00
Grenada 12,000 10.80
Jamaica 96,000 8.20
British Virgin Islands 2,300 8.00
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 5,900 6.00
French Guiana 12,000 5.20
Saint Lucia 5,200 3.15
Saint Kitts and Nevis 1,500 3.00
Belize 7,600 2.10
Barbados 4,000 1.75

Compared with late-nineteenth-century East or South Asian migrants to other world regions, the ancestors of the populations shown in the table likely received a somewhat better reception in their host societies for all of the following reasons EXCEPT:

"After long periods of error, philosophers have at last discovered the true rights of man and how they can all be deduced from the single truth: that man is a perceptive being capable of reason and acquiring moral ideas.
At last, man could proclaim his rights out loud, rights that for so long had been ignored. He could submit all opinions to his own reason and use that reason to search for truth. Every man learned with pride that nature had not forever condemned him to base his beliefs on the opinions of others or the superstitions of antiquity.
Thus developed an understanding that the natural rights of man are inalienable and cannot be forfeited and a strongly expressed desire for freedom of thought, trade, and profession. There also developed a desire to alleviate people's suffering, to eliminate all criminal laws against political dissenters, and to abolish torture. A desire arose for a milder system of criminal legislation that could give complete security to the innocent. All of these principles gradually filtered down from philosophical works to every class of society whose education went beyond basic literacy. These principles became the common faith of all people."
Marquis de Condorcet, French nobleman and philosopher, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind, published in 1794
Which of the following is the main claim that the author makes in the passage?

"After long periods of error, philosophers have at last discovered the true rights of man and how they can all be deduced from the single truth: that man is a perceptive being capable of reason and acquiring moral ideas.
At last, man could proclaim his rights out loud, rights that for so long had been ignored. He could submit all opinions to his own reason and use that reason to search for truth. Every man learned with pride that nature had not forever condemned him to base his beliefs on the opinions of others or the superstitions of antiquity.
Thus developed an understanding that the natural rights of man are inalienable and cannot be forfeited and a strongly expressed desire for freedom of thought, trade, and profession. There also developed a desire to alleviate people's suffering, to eliminate all criminal laws against political dissenters, and to abolish torture. A desire arose for a milder system of criminal legislation that could give complete security to the innocent. All of these principles gradually filtered down from philosophical works to every class of society whose education went beyond basic literacy. These principles became the common faith of all people."
Marquis de Condorcet, French nobleman and philosopher, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind, published in 1794
Which of the following is an implicit claim that the author makes in the second paragraph?

"After long periods of error, philosophers have at last discovered the true rights of man and how they can all be deduced from the single truth: that man is a perceptive being capable of reason and acquiring moral ideas.
At last, man could proclaim his rights out loud, rights that for so long had been ignored. He could submit all opinions to his own reason and use that reason to search for truth. Every man learned with pride that nature had not forever condemned him to base his beliefs on the opinions of others or the superstitions of antiquity.
Thus developed an understanding that the natural rights of man are inalienable and cannot be forfeited and a strongly expressed desire for freedom of thought, trade, and profession. There also developed a desire to alleviate people's suffering, to eliminate all criminal laws against political dissenters, and to abolish torture. A desire arose for a milder system of criminal legislation that could give complete security to the innocent. All of these principles gradually filtered down from philosophical works to every class of society whose education went beyond basic literacy. These principles became the common faith of all people."
Marquis de Condorcet, French nobleman and philosopher, Sketch for a Historical Picture of the Progress of the Human Mind, published in 1794
Which of the following is an implicit claim that the author makes in the third paragraph?

Source 1
"Beloved brothers in Christ, here again we should see and admire the boundless love of God toward us, that He has placed over us this great empire of the Ottomans. The Empire is a mighty obstacle to the Latin heretics in the West. By contrast, to us, the Orthodox people of the East, the Empire has been a means of salvation. For God has continued to put into the heart of the Sultan of these Ottomans an inclination to keep free the religious beliefs of our Orthodox faith and to protect us, even to the point of occasionally chastising Christians who deviate from their faith.
Brothers, lately you would have heard a lot about this new system of 'liberty' originating in France. But let us examine the concept more carefully to see if it can be reconciled with good civil government and safety for the citizens. We see from the example of the French Republic that a national, democratic form of government can only provide 'liberty' if the word is taken to mean the freedom to simply act upon one's appetites and desires. But true Christian liberty, properly understood, means something quite different: to be free to live according to both divine and human laws. In other words, it is to live free to follow your conscience and free of any trouble with the authorities. Seen in this light, the new French system of liberty is a path leading to destruction, confusion, overturning of good government, or, simply speaking, a new ambush of the devil to lead us Orthodox Christians astray."
Anthimos, Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem [then part of the Ottoman Empire], Paternal Instruction, leaflet printed in Greek for distribution among Christian communities in the Ottoman Empire, 1798
Source 2
"I address you in Hungarian today* because reviving our language is like cleansing the mirror of our history, so that the flies buzzing around may not deprive us of its light. It is a sad fate for a nation to perish—especially a nation such as ours that can boast of brilliant feats and that has only sunk to its present condition through the bitter workings of fate.
It is of no use to try to accept with stern philosophy, common sense, and cold blood that all men are equal in everything, that the whole human race is a single nation. No! We are national beings and we were raised with our Hungarian selves that way, so that we can never be Germans, or French, or Poles, or Spaniards. We long for glory in this life as Hungarian sons of the Hungarian nation and, in the next, we pray that the angels of the heavens may know us as Hungarians.
It is time for the mind of the Hungarian nation to be clarified through a revival of our mother-tongue. How can our educated classes study the languages of Europe, if we are forgetting our own? How could we lift up our people, most of whom live in the countryside, if we cannot offer them books to read in the language they speak? What we urgently need is a group of scholars who would be paid solely to translate works from Latin, French, German, and Greek into Hungarian—this would do more good for the refinement of the country's mind than a thousand Latin and German schools."
*At the time, many educated Hungarians preferred to communicate in German, the language of the Austrian Empire of which Hungary was a part.
György Bessenyei, Hungarian writer, "Oration on the Subject Matter of the Nation," essay published in 1817
Which of the following is an accurate comparison between the views expressed in the two sources?

Source 1
"Beloved brothers in Christ, here again we should see and admire the boundless love of God toward us, that He has placed over us this great empire of the Ottomans. The Empire is a mighty obstacle to the Latin heretics in the West. By contrast, to us, the Orthodox people of the East, the Empire has been a means of salvation. For God has continued to put into the heart of the Sultan of these Ottomans an inclination to keep free the religious beliefs of our Orthodox faith and to protect us, even to the point of occasionally chastising Christians who deviate from their faith.
Brothers, lately you would have heard a lot about this new system of 'liberty' originating in France. But let us examine the concept more carefully to see if it can be reconciled with good civil government and safety for the citizens. We see from the example of the French Republic that a national, democratic form of government can only provide 'liberty' if the word is taken to mean the freedom to simply act upon one's appetites and desires. But true Christian liberty, properly understood, means something quite different: to be free to live according to both divine and human laws. In other words, it is to live free to follow your conscience and free of any trouble with the authorities. Seen in this light, the new French system of liberty is a path leading to destruction, confusion, overturning of good government, or, simply speaking, a new ambush of the devil to lead us Orthodox Christians astray."
Anthimos, Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem [then part of the Ottoman Empire], Paternal Instruction, leaflet printed in Greek for distribution among Christian communities in the Ottoman Empire, 1798
Source 2
"I address you in Hungarian today* because reviving our language is like cleansing the mirror of our history, so that the flies buzzing around may not deprive us of its light. It is a sad fate for a nation to perish—especially a nation such as ours that can boast of brilliant feats and that has only sunk to its present condition through the bitter workings of fate.
It is of no use to try to accept with stern philosophy, common sense, and cold blood that all men are equal in everything, that the whole human race is a single nation. No! We are national beings and we were raised with our Hungarian selves that way, so that we can never be Germans, or French, or Poles, or Spaniards. We long for glory in this life as Hungarian sons of the Hungarian nation and, in the next, we pray that the angels of the heavens may know us as Hungarians.
It is time for the mind of the Hungarian nation to be clarified through a revival of our mother-tongue. How can our educated classes study the languages of Europe, if we are forgetting our own? How could we lift up our people, most of whom live in the countryside, if we cannot offer them books to read in the language they speak? What we urgently need is a group of scholars who would be paid solely to translate works from Latin, French, German, and Greek into Hungarian—this would do more good for the refinement of the country's mind than a thousand Latin and German schools."
*At the time, many educated Hungarians preferred to communicate in German, the language of the Austrian Empire of which Hungary was a part.
György Bessenyei, Hungarian writer, "Oration on the Subject Matter of the Nation," essay published in 1817
Which of the following is an accurate comparison of the arguments made in the two sources regarding ideas of liberty and equality?

Source 1
"Beloved brothers in Christ, here again we should see and admire the boundless love of God toward us, that He has placed over us this great empire of the Ottomans. The Empire is a mighty obstacle to the Latin heretics in the West. By contrast, to us, the Orthodox people of the East, the Empire has been a means of salvation. For God has continued to put into the heart of the Sultan of these Ottomans an inclination to keep free the religious beliefs of our Orthodox faith and to protect us, even to the point of occasionally chastising Christians who deviate from their faith.
Brothers, lately you would have heard a lot about this new system of 'liberty' originating in France. But let us examine the concept more carefully to see if it can be reconciled with good civil government and safety for the citizens. We see from the example of the French Republic that a national, democratic form of government can only provide 'liberty' if the word is taken to mean the freedom to simply act upon one's appetites and desires. But true Christian liberty, properly understood, means something quite different: to be free to live according to both divine and human laws. In other words, it is to live free to follow your conscience and free of any trouble with the authorities. Seen in this light, the new French system of liberty is a path leading to destruction, confusion, overturning of good government, or, simply speaking, a new ambush of the devil to lead us Orthodox Christians astray."
Anthimos, Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem [then part of the Ottoman Empire], Paternal Instruction, leaflet printed in Greek for distribution among Christian communities in the Ottoman Empire, 1798
Source 2
"I address you in Hungarian today* because reviving our language is like cleansing the mirror of our history, so that the flies buzzing around may not deprive us of its light. It is a sad fate for a nation to perish—especially a nation such as ours that can boast of brilliant feats and that has only sunk to its present condition through the bitter workings of fate.
It is of no use to try to accept with stern philosophy, common sense, and cold blood that all men are equal in everything, that the whole human race is a single nation. No! We are national beings and we were raised with our Hungarian selves that way, so that we can never be Germans, or French, or Poles, or Spaniards. We long for glory in this life as Hungarian sons of the Hungarian nation and, in the next, we pray that the angels of the heavens may know us as Hungarians.
It is time for the mind of the Hungarian nation to be clarified through a revival of our mother-tongue. How can our educated classes study the languages of Europe, if we are forgetting our own? How could we lift up our people, most of whom live in the countryside, if we cannot offer them books to read in the language they speak? What we urgently need is a group of scholars who would be paid solely to translate works from Latin, French, German, and Greek into Hungarian—this would do more good for the refinement of the country's mind than a thousand Latin and German schools."
*At the time, many educated Hungarians preferred to communicate in German, the language of the Austrian Empire of which Hungary was a part.
György Bessenyei, Hungarian writer, "Oration on the Subject Matter of the Nation," essay published in 1817
Which of the following is an accurate comparison of the positions expressed by the authors of the two sources regarding the idea that existing political boundaries should be changed so that each nation has its own state?

"In late nineteenth-century Tsarist Russia, the state participated directly in the nation's economy to an extent unequaled in any Western country. For example, in 1899 the state bought almost two-thirds of all metallurgical production in Russia. By 1900, the state controlled some 70 percent of the railways and owned vast tracts of land, numerous mines and oil fields, and extensive forests. The economic well-being of Russian private entrepreneurs thus depended in large measure on decisions made by the state authorities in St. Petersburg. This was a major reason why a large portion of the Russian middle class took a very timid approach to politics in this period.
Russia's economic progress, particularly in the last decade of the nineteenth century, was remarkable by every standard. Railway trackage virtually doubled, coal output in southern Russia jumped from just under 3 million tons in 1890 to almost 11 million tons in 1900. In the same region, the production of iron and steel rose from about 140,000 tons in 1890 to almost 1,250,000 in 1900. Also, between 1890 and 1900 Russian production of cotton thread almost doubled and that of cotton cloth increased by about two-thirds. By 1914 the Russian Empire was the fifth-largest industrial power in the world, though its labor productivity and per-capita income still lagged behind those in Western Europe."
Abraham Ascher, historian, The Revolution of 1905: A Short History, book published in 2004
As described in the passage, the pattern of economic development in Russia in the nineteenth century differed most strongly from which other pattern of economic development during the same period?

"In late nineteenth-century Tsarist Russia, the state participated directly in the nation's economy to an extent unequaled in any Western country. For example, in 1899 the state bought almost two-thirds of all metallurgical production in Russia. By 1900, the state controlled some 70 percent of the railways and owned vast tracts of land, numerous mines and oil fields, and extensive forests. The economic well-being of Russian private entrepreneurs thus depended in large measure on decisions made by the state authorities in St. Petersburg. This was a major reason why a large portion of the Russian middle class took a very timid approach to politics in this period.
Russia's economic progress, particularly in the last decade of the nineteenth century, was remarkable by every standard. Railway trackage virtually doubled, coal output in southern Russia jumped from just under 3 million tons in 1890 to almost 11 million tons in 1900. In the same region, the production of iron and steel rose from about 140,000 tons in 1890 to almost 1,250,000 in 1900. Also, between 1890 and 1900 Russian production of cotton thread almost doubled and that of cotton cloth increased by about two-thirds. By 1914 the Russian Empire was the fifth-largest industrial power in the world, though its labor productivity and per-capita income still lagged behind those in Western Europe."
Abraham Ascher, historian, The Revolution of 1905: A Short History, book published in 2004
The rapid growth of industrial output in Russia during the 1890s was most likely comparable to the growth of industrial output in which other state during the same period?

"In late nineteenth-century Tsarist Russia, the state participated directly in the nation's economy to an extent unequaled in any Western country. For example, in 1899 the state bought almost two-thirds of all metallurgical production in Russia. By 1900, the state controlled some 70 percent of the railways and owned vast tracts of land, numerous mines and oil fields, and extensive forests. The economic well-being of Russian private entrepreneurs thus depended in large measure on decisions made by the state authorities in St. Petersburg. This was a major reason why a large portion of the Russian middle class took a very timid approach to politics in this period.
Russia's economic progress, particularly in the last decade of the nineteenth century, was remarkable by every standard. Railway trackage virtually doubled, coal output in southern Russia jumped from just under 3 million tons in 1890 to almost 11 million tons in 1900. In the same region, the production of iron and steel rose from about 140,000 tons in 1890 to almost 1,250,000 in 1900. Also, between 1890 and 1900 Russian production of cotton thread almost doubled and that of cotton cloth increased by about two-thirds. By 1914 the Russian Empire was the fifth-largest industrial power in the world, though its labor productivity and per-capita income still lagged behind those in Western Europe."
Abraham Ascher, historian, The Revolution of 1905: A Short History, book published in 2004
The economic changes in rapidly industrializing countries such as the Russian Empire in the late nineteenth century led most directlyto which of the following social or intellectual changes during the same period?

"We can agree that, in principle, it might be a good idea to permit both foreigners and Japanese to engage in coastal and seaborne shipping around and from Japan, because that would increase competition and improve efficiency. But, in practice, we know that seaborne shipping is too important a matter to be given over to foreigners. To do so would mean a loss of business and employment opportunities for our people in peacetime. And, in times of war, to not have the domestic capacity to transport goods would be tantamount to abandoning our status as an independent nation.
In recent decades, Japan was forced to sign various treaties with foreign powers allowing their ships to proceed freely from one Japanese harbor to another. Some people claim that these treaty rights also allow foreigners to transport Japanese made goods, either around our country or for export to Korea or China. I am not qualified to discuss the legal merits of these positions, but I would like to point out that, unless we have a plan for developing our own domestic shipping businesses, we will never be able to compete with the foreigners in this field.
In founding the Mitsubishi company,* my goal has been to help recover for Japan the right of seaborne shipping, so we no longer have to delegate it to foreigners. I regard this not only as my business interest but also as my duty as a citizen. If we don't succeed as a company, it would be useless for the government to try to renegotiate the unequal treaties, or to attempt to further develop Japan's economy. The government knows this, and that is why it protects our company. And we need the government's protection to compete against foreign rivals, such as the [British] Peninsula and Oriental Steam Navigation Company. Recently, the P&O Company has been working to set up a new line between Yokohama [in Japan] and Shanghai and is attempting to claim rights over the [Japanese] ports of Nagasaki, Kobe, and Yokohama. The P&O Company is backed by its massive capital, large fleet of ships, and experience operating in Hong Kong and China. How can we compete against such a giant if we do not have the backing of our national government?"
*The Mitsubishi company was established in 1870 as a maritime shipping firm. In subsequent decades, it diversified into mining, manufacturing, and other fields.
Yataro Iwasaki, president of the Mitsubishi Company, letter to company managers, 1876
The debates about maritime shipping in Japan alluded to in the first paragraph were most directly connected to which of the following nineteenth-century developments?

"We can agree that, in principle, it might be a good idea to permit both foreigners and Japanese to engage in coastal and seaborne shipping around and from Japan, because that would increase competition and improve efficiency. But, in practice, we know that seaborne shipping is too important a matter to be given over to foreigners. To do so would mean a loss of business and employment opportunities for our people in peacetime. And, in times of war, to not have the domestic capacity to transport goods would be tantamount to abandoning our status as an independent nation.
In recent decades, Japan was forced to sign various treaties with foreign powers allowing their ships to proceed freely from one Japanese harbor to another. Some people claim that these treaty rights also allow foreigners to transport Japanese made goods, either around our country or for export to Korea or China. I am not qualified to discuss the legal merits of these positions, but I would like to point out that, unless we have a plan for developing our own domestic shipping businesses, we will never be able to compete with the foreigners in this field.
In founding the Mitsubishi company,* my goal has been to help recover for Japan the right of seaborne shipping, so we no longer have to delegate it to foreigners. I regard this not only as my business interest but also as my duty as a citizen. If we don't succeed as a company, it would be useless for the government to try to renegotiate the unequal treaties, or to attempt to further develop Japan's economy. The government knows this, and that is why it protects our company. And we need the government's protection to compete against foreign rivals, such as the [British] Peninsula and Oriental Steam Navigation Company. Recently, the P&O Company has been working to set up a new line between Yokohama [in Japan] and Shanghai and is attempting to claim rights over the [Japanese] ports of Nagasaki, Kobe, and Yokohama. The P&O Company is backed by its massive capital, large fleet of ships, and experience operating in Hong Kong and China. How can we compete against such a giant if we do not have the backing of our national government?"
*The Mitsubishi company was established in 1870 as a maritime shipping firm. In subsequent decades, it diversified into mining, manufacturing, and other fields.
Yataro Iwasaki, president of the Mitsubishi Company, letter to company managers, 1876
Iwasaki's position in the letter on the relationship between the Mitsubishi Company and the Japanese government is most clearly a response to

"We can agree that, in principle, it might be a good idea to permit both foreigners and Japanese to engage in coastal and seaborne shipping around and from Japan, because that would increase competition and improve efficiency. But, in practice, we know that seaborne shipping is too important a matter to be given over to foreigners. To do so would mean a loss of business and employment opportunities for our people in peacetime. And, in times of war, to not have the domestic capacity to transport goods would be tantamount to abandoning our status as an independent nation.
In recent decades, Japan was forced to sign various treaties with foreign powers allowing their ships to proceed freely from one Japanese harbor to another. Some people claim that these treaty rights also allow foreigners to transport Japanese made goods, either around our country or for export to Korea or China. I am not qualified to discuss the legal merits of these positions, but I would like to point out that, unless we have a plan for developing our own domestic shipping businesses, we will never be able to compete with the foreigners in this field.
In founding the Mitsubishi company,* my goal has been to help recover for Japan the right of seaborne shipping, so we no longer have to delegate it to foreigners. I regard this not only as my business interest but also as my duty as a citizen. If we don't succeed as a company, it would be useless for the government to try to renegotiate the unequal treaties, or to attempt to further develop Japan's economy. The government knows this, and that is why it protects our company. And we need the government's protection to compete against foreign rivals, such as the [British] Peninsula and Oriental Steam Navigation Company. Recently, the P&O Company has been working to set up a new line between Yokohama [in Japan] and Shanghai and is attempting to claim rights over the [Japanese] ports of Nagasaki, Kobe, and Yokohama. The P&O Company is backed by its massive capital, large fleet of ships, and experience operating in Hong Kong and China. How can we compete against such a giant if we do not have the backing of our national government?"
*The Mitsubishi company was established in 1870 as a maritime shipping firm. In subsequent decades, it diversified into mining, manufacturing, and other fields.
Yataro Iwasaki, president of the Mitsubishi Company, letter to company managers, 1876
The commercial rivalries discussed in the third paragraph best illustrate the interplay between nineteenth-century economic development in Japan and the development of

"Writing now, at an age beyond sixty, I must admit that we do not understand the operations of God's wisdom and are, therefore, unable to tell the causes of the terrible inequalities that we see around us,—why so many people should have so little to make life enjoyable, while a few others, not through their own merit, have had gifts poured out to them from a full hand. We acknowledge the hand of God and His wisdom, but still we feel horror at the misery of many of our brethren. We who have been born in a more fortunate condition—we to whom wealth, education, and liberty have been given—cannot, I think, look upon the unintellectual and toil-bound life of those who cannot even feed themselves sufficiently by the meager wages they have earned with so much sweat, without experiencing some feeling of injustice, some sting of pain.
This consciousness of wrong has produced in many enthusiastic but unbalanced minds a desire to make all things right by pursuing equality. But any careful observer of our society, or any student of our history has to admit that, as unjust as it may seem, inequality is part of the natural order of things. You can make all men equal today, but God has so created them that they shall become unequal again tomorrow. The very word 'equality' presents to the imaginations of men ideas of communism, of ruin, and insane democracy. Instead of obsessing about equality, we should be working toward reducing inequalities—provided, of course, that we do so gradually and without any sudden disruption of society."
Anthony Trollope, British novelist, autobiography written during the 1870s and published after his death in 1882
Which of the following pieces of information that Trollope reveals about himself in the passage might best explain his contention that economic inequalities ought to be addressed "gradually and without any sudden disruption of society"?

"Writing now, at an age beyond sixty, I must admit that we do not understand the operations of God's wisdom and are, therefore, unable to tell the causes of the terrible inequalities that we see around us,—why so many people should have so little to make life enjoyable, while a few others, not through their own merit, have had gifts poured out to them from a full hand. We acknowledge the hand of God and His wisdom, but still we feel horror at the misery of many of our brethren. We who have been born in a more fortunate condition—we to whom wealth, education, and liberty have been given—cannot, I think, look upon the unintellectual and toil-bound life of those who cannot even feed themselves sufficiently by the meager wages they have earned with so much sweat, without experiencing some feeling of injustice, some sting of pain.
This consciousness of wrong has produced in many enthusiastic but unbalanced minds a desire to make all things right by pursuing equality. But any careful observer of our society, or any student of our history has to admit that, as unjust as it may seem, inequality is part of the natural order of things. You can make all men equal today, but God has so created them that they shall become unequal again tomorrow. The very word 'equality' presents to the imaginations of men ideas of communism, of ruin, and insane democracy. Instead of obsessing about equality, we should be working toward reducing inequalities—provided, of course, that we do so gradually and without any sudden disruption of society."
Anthony Trollope, British novelist, autobiography written during the 1870s and published after his death in 1882
Trollope's arguments in the second paragraph are most clearly intended to offer an alternative to the arguments made by which late nineteenth-century group?

"Writing now, at an age beyond sixty, I must admit that we do not understand the operations of God's wisdom and are, therefore, unable to tell the causes of the terrible inequalities that we see around us,—why so many people should have so little to make life enjoyable, while a few others, not through their own merit, have had gifts poured out to them from a full hand. We acknowledge the hand of God and His wisdom, but still we feel horror at the misery of many of our brethren. We who have been born in a more fortunate condition—we to whom wealth, education, and liberty have been given—cannot, I think, look upon the unintellectual and toil-bound life of those who cannot even feed themselves sufficiently by the meager wages they have earned with so much sweat, without experiencing some feeling of injustice, some sting of pain.
This consciousness of wrong has produced in many enthusiastic but unbalanced minds a desire to make all things right by pursuing equality. But any careful observer of our society, or any student of our history has to admit that, as unjust as it may seem, inequality is part of the natural order of things. You can make all men equal today, but God has so created them that they shall become unequal again tomorrow. The very word 'equality' presents to the imaginations of men ideas of communism, of ruin, and insane democracy. Instead of obsessing about equality, we should be working toward reducing inequalities—provided, of course, that we do so gradually and without any sudden disruption of society."
Anthony Trollope, British novelist, autobiography written during the 1870s and published after his death in 1882
Trollope's characterization of democracy in the second paragraph can best be seen as a direct reference to which aspect of the historical situation in the late nineteenth century?

"There is no town in the world where the distance between the rich and the poor is so great, or the barrier between them so difficult to be crossed. The separation between the different classes, and the consequent ignorance of each other's habits and condition, are far more complete in this place than in any other country in Europe, or even in the rural areas of Britain. There is far less personal communication between the master cotton spinner and his workmen and between the master tailor and his apprentices than there is between the Duke of Wellington and the humblest laborer of his estate, or than there was between King George III and the lowliest errand boy in his palace. I mean this not as a matter of blame, but I state it simply as a fact."
Richard Parkinson, English clergyman of the Anglican Church, "On the Present Condition of the Laboring Poor in Manchester," paper published in London, 1841
The class relationships in Manchester described by Parkinson are best explained in the context of the

"There is no town in the world where the distance between the rich and the poor is so great, or the barrier between them so difficult to be crossed. The separation between the different classes, and the consequent ignorance of each other's habits and condition, are far more complete in this place than in any other country in Europe, or even in the rural areas of Britain. There is far less personal communication between the master cotton spinner and his workmen and between the master tailor and his apprentices than there is between the Duke of Wellington and the humblest laborer of his estate, or than there was between King George III and the lowliest errand boy in his palace. I mean this not as a matter of blame, but I state it simply as a fact."
Richard Parkinson, English clergyman of the Anglican Church, "On the Present Condition of the Laboring Poor in Manchester," paper published in London, 1841
The disparities of wealth mentioned by Parkinson in the passage are best explained in the context of the

"There is no town in the world where the distance between the rich and the poor is so great, or the barrier between them so difficult to be crossed. The separation between the different classes, and the consequent ignorance of each other's habits and condition, are far more complete in this place than in any other country in Europe, or even in the rural areas of Britain. There is far less personal communication between the master cotton spinner and his workmen and between the master tailor and his apprentices than there is between the Duke of Wellington and the humblest laborer of his estate, or than there was between King George III and the lowliest errand boy in his palace. I mean this not as a matter of blame, but I state it simply as a fact."
Richard Parkinson, English clergyman of the Anglican Church, "On the Present Condition of the Laboring Poor in Manchester," paper published in London, 1841
The rapid growth of nineteenth-century industrial cities such as Manchester is best understood in the context of which of the following economic developments?

What best explains why the movement described in the passage began after the Second World War?

Which of the following best explains the significance of the intended audience of yin Zeming's pamphlet in shaping the author's narrative?

Which of the following best explains why the Soviet Union was willing to undertake projects such as the one discussed in the passage quizlet?

What best explains Lt Colonel Ojukwu's purpose in including the information in the first paragraph in his independence proclamation?