Culture and BiologyCulture relates to nature (our biology and genetics) and nurture (our environment and surroundings that also shape our identities). Show
Learning Objectives Examine the ways culture and biology interact to form societies, norms, rituals and other representations of culture Key TakeawaysKey Points
Key Terms
Culture and BiologyHuman beings are biological creatures. We are composed of blood and bones and flesh. At the most basic level, our genes express themselves in physical characteristics, affecting bodily aspects such as skin tone and eye color. Yet, human beings are much more than our biology, and this is evident particularly in the way humans generate, and live within, complex cultures. Defining Culture Culture is a term used by social scientists, like anthropologists and sociologists, to encompass all the facets of human experience that extend beyond our physical fact. Culture refers to the way we understand ourselves both as individuals and as members of society, and includes stories, religion, media, rituals, and even language itself. The History of Culture as a Concept Culture is primarily an anthropological term. The field of
anthropology emerged around the same time as Social Darwinism, in the late 19th and early 20th century. Social Darwinism was the belief that the closer a cultural group was to the normative, Western, European standards of behavior and appearance, the more evolved that group was. As a theory of the world, it was essentially a racist concept that persists in certain forms up to this day. If you have ever heard someone reference people of African descent as being from, or
close to, the jungle, or the wilderness, you've encountered a type of coded language that is a modern incarnation of Social Darwinist thought. Guildford Cathedral relief (UK): People began domesticating cattle many years before they developed the genes for lactose tolerance. Culture and SocietyCulture is what differentiates one group or society from the next; different societies have different cultures. Learning Objectives Differentiate between the various meanings of culture within society Key TakeawaysKey Points
Key Terms
Culture encompasses human elements beyond biology: for example, our norms and values, the stories we tell, learned or acquired behaviors, religious beliefs, art and fashion, and so on. Culture is what differentiates one group or society from the next. Defining Culture Almost every human behavior, from shopping to marriage to expressions of feelings, is learned. Behavior based on learned customs is not necessarily a bad thing - being familiar with unwritten rules helps
people feel secure and confident that their behaviors will not be challenged or disrupted. However even the simplest actions - such as commuting to work, ordering food from a restaurant, and greeting someone on the street - evidence a great deal of cultural propriety. The History of "Culture" Some people think of culture in the singular, in the way that it was thought of in Europe during the 18th and early 19th centuries: as something achieved through evolution and progress. This concept of culture reflected inequalities within European societies and their colonies around the world; in short, it equates culture with civilization and
contrasts both with nature or non-civilization. According to this understanding of culture, some countries are more "civilized" than others, and some people are therefore more "cultured" than others. Aboriginal culture: Early colonial definitions of culture equated culture and civilization and characterized aboriginal people as uncivilized and uncultured. This definition of culture only recognizes a single standard of refinement to which all groups are held accountable. Thus, people who differ
from those who believe themselves to be "cultured" in this sense are not usually understood as having a different culture; they are understood as being uncultured. High culture: Ballet is traditionally considered a form of "high culture". Cultural UniversalsA cultural universal is an element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures worldwide. Learning Objectives Discuss cultural universals in
terms of the various elements of culture, such as norms and beliefs Key TakeawaysKey Points
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The sociology of culture concerns culture—usually understood as the ensemble of symbolic codes used by a society—as it is manifested in society. The elements of culture include (1) symbols (anything that carries particular meaning recognized by people who share the same culture); (2) language (system of symbols that allows people to communicate with one another); (3) values (culturally-defined standards that serve as broad guidelines for social living; (4) beliefs (specific statements that people hold to be true); and (5) norms (rules and expectations by which a society guides the behavior of its members). While these elements of culture may be seen in various contexts over time and across geography, a cultural universal is an element, pattern, trait, or institution that is common to all human cultures worldwide. Taken together, the whole body of cultural universals is known as the human condition. Among the cultural universals listed by Donald Brown (1991) are abstract speech, figurative speech and metaphors, antonyms and synonyms, and units of time. First-Cousin Marriage Laws in the U.S.: In states marked dark blue, first-cousin marriage is legal. Light blue signifies that it is legal but has restrictions or exceptions. Pink signifies that it is banned with exceptions; red signifies that it is banned via statute, and dark red signifies that it is a criminal offense. The concept of a cultural universal has long been discussed in the social sciences. Cultural universals are elements, patterns, traits, or institutions that are common to all human cultures worldwide. There is a tension in cultural anthropology and cultural sociology between the claim that culture is a universal (the fact that all human societies have culture), and that it is also particular (culture takes a tremendous variety of forms around the world). The idea
of cultural universals—that specific aspects of culture are common to all human cultures—runs contrary to cultural relativism. Cultural relativism was, in part, a response to Western ethnocentrism. Ethnocentrism may take obvious forms, in which one consciously believes that one people's arts are the most beautiful, values the most virtuous, and beliefs the most truthful. Franz Boas argued that one's culture may mediate and thus limit one's perceptions in less obvious ways. He understood
"culture" to include not only certain tastes in food, art, and music, or beliefs about religion but instead assumed a much broader notion of culture. Culture ShockCulture shock is the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life in a new country. Learning Objectives Discuss culture shock in terms of its four phases - honeymoon, negotiation,
adjustment and mastery Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Culture shock is the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an unfamiliar way of life
due to immigration or a visit to a new country, or to a move between social environments. One of the most common causes of culture shock involves individuals in a foreign country. There is no true way to entirely prevent culture shock, as individuals in any society are personally affected by cultural contrasts differently. Culture Shock: Enthusiastic welcome offered to the first Indian student to arrive in Dresden, East Germany (1951). After some time (usually around three months, depending on the individual), differences between the old and new culture become apparent and may create anxiety. This
is the mark of the negotiation phase. Excitement may eventually give way to unpleasant feelings of frustration and anger as one continues to experience unfavorable events that may be perceived as strange and offensive to one's cultural attitude. Still, the most important change in the period is communication. People adjusting to a new culture often feel lonely and homesick because they are not yet used to the new environment and meet people with whom they are not familiar every day. Ethnocentrism and Cultural RelativismEthnocentrism, in contrast to cultural relativism, is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own culture. Learning Objectives Examine the concepts of ethnocentrism and cultural relativism in relation to your own and other cultures in society Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Ethnocentrism, a term coined by William Graham Sumner, is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of your own ethnic culture and the belief that that is in fact the "right" way to look at the world. This leads to making incorrect assumptions about others' behavior
based on your own norms, values, and beliefs. For instance, reluctance or aversion to trying another culture's cuisine is ethnocentric. Social scientists strive to treat cultural differences as neither inferior nor superior. That way, they can understand their research topics within the appropriate cultural context and examine their own biases and assumptions at the same time. Cultural context: Depending on your cultural background, this may or may not look delicious. Material CultureIn the social sciences, material culture is a term that refers to the relationship between artifacts and social relations. Learning Objectives Give examples of material culture and how it can help sociologist understand a particular society Key TakeawaysKey Points
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In the social sciences, material culture refers to the relationship between artifacts and social relations. Material culture consists in physical objects that humans make. These objects inevitably reflect the historical, geographic, and social conditions of their origin. For instance, the clothes that you are wearing might tell researchers of the future about the fashions of today. Clothes as Material Culture: Fashion is part of material culture. People's relationship to and perception of objects are socially and culturally dependent. Accordingly, social and cultural attitudes can be discussed through the lens of a culture's relationship to materiality. Periodicals as Material Culture: Media, such as magazines, are part of material culture. Computers as Material Culture: Computers are an increasingly common part of everyday life for most people. They constitute an increasingly significant part of our material culture. Nonmaterial CultureNon-material culture includes the behaviors, ideas, norms, values, and beliefs that contribute to a society's overall culture. Learning Objectives Analyze the different ways norms, values and beliefs interact to form non-material culture Key TakeawaysKey Points
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Culture as a general concept consists of both material and non-material culture. Material culture is a term developed in the late 19th and early 20th
centuries, that refers to the relationship between artifacts and social relations. In contrast, non-material culture does not include physical objects or artifacts. Examples include any ideas, beliefs, values, or norms that shape a society. Licenses and AttributionsCC licensed content, Shared previously
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Which term best describes the most important symbolic aspect of culture?Language is the most important symbolic aspect of a culture as it represents the most extensive use of symbols to represent objects and ideas and is a verbal symbol of a culture.
What is anthropology best described as?Anthropology is the scientific study of humans and their cultural, social, biological, and environmental aspects of life in the past and the present.
What term best describes the study of patterns of life in a society?ethnology. Tap the card to flip 👆
Which term best describes a view stating that a culture can be evaluated only according to its own standards and values?Cultural relativism is the idea that a person's beliefs and practices should be understood based on that person's own culture. Proponents of cultural relativism also tend to argue that the norms and values of one culture should not be evaluated using the norms and values of another.
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