How the educational system reproduces the social class structure is an analysis of the conflict perspective?

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Until we adopt the ability to question all the structures and systems that govern our lives, many of us assume that those systems function in the favour of the average citizen. But of course, as sociologists - we know better! That is precisely why there are a multitude of varying perspectives on the role and function of the education system.

• In this explanation, we'll be exploring the role and functions of the education system in sociology.
• We'll explore the definition of the term 'education system', followed by an in-depth examination of the functions of education according to various sociological perspectives.
• We'll also take a look at the 1944 tripartite education system, as well as the comprehensive education system - both of which are widely discussed in sociological research and theory.

The role and functions of the education system in sociology

Thesociology of educationis the study of human social relationships, patterns, events, institutions, and their development in the context of education.

Sociologists investigate and examine people's experiences of education and outcomes by identifying trends. They study how education affects society. Sociologists analyse social phenomena at different levels and from different theoretical perspectives.

'Education system' definition

The term 'education system' refers to the economic, political and social structures that shape access to and experiences of education in a particular country or state.

When studying education systems, it is helpful to understand what micro and macro-level theories are.

Micro-level theorieslook at small-scale social processes, systems, and interactions. It is based on the interpretative analyses of society and the world. A macro-sociological study might investigate how institutional racism affects pupil attainment, while a micro-sociological study might investigate the effects of teacher labelling on pupil attainment.

Macro theoriesanalyse social systems and populations at a structural level to understand how social processes, patterns, and trends shape the lives and experiences of groups and individuals at a larger scale.

Functions of education in society

There are numerous theoretical perspectives or sociological paradigms on the role and functions of education. Here is a summary of these theoretical perspectives:

Functionalist theory of education

According to functionalists, society is like a biological organism with interconnected parts held together by a value consensus. Each piece performs a vital role in maintaining balance and social equilibrium for the continuity of society. (See Functionalist Theory of Education for more detail.)

Functionalist theories of education draw heavily on French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917), who argued that education serves the needs of society by helping pupils develop specialist skills and create social solidarity. Durkheim emphasised the importance of moral education, which is essential in the transmission of culture and role allocation or social placement.

Talcott Parsons (1902–1979), who followed in the footsteps of Durkheim, argued that after the family (an agent ofprimary socialisation), education takes over as the most important agent of secondary socialisation. For Parsons, schools, like wider society, are based on meritocratic principles. People are rewarded based on their efforts and talents. Schools are the focal socialising agent; they act as a bridge between the family and wider society, teaching pupils how to navigate society.

Kingsley Davis and Wilbert Moore (1945) suggested education plays a vital function in role allocation. Schools and other educational institutions select and allocate pupils to their future roles. Inequality is a necessary and inevitable result of meritocracy; without inequalities, there would be no meritocracy. Inequalities also encourage competition which ensures the most talented and the most suitable people fill the most important positions in society, and encourages social and cultural innovation.

Fig. 1 - Inequalities in a meritocratic system

Marxist and socialist theories of education

A Marxist view of society is based on class division. Marxists view education the same way, saying that education is based on class division and capitalist exploitation. Traditional Marxists view capitalism as a two-class system; the capitalist ruling class (the bourgeoisie) are a minority class that holds the most power in society and owns the means of production, and the working class (the proletariat) are forced to sell their labour to the ruling class. This, in turn, creates class conflict and raises class consciousness.

Capitalism persists because the ruling class can control society through the education system. Education legitimises class inequality by producing and reproducing ideologies that create false class consciousness among the exploited working class.

According to Louis Althusser, the state is the means by which the capitalist ruling class maintains power. The state consists of two separate apparatuses: the repressive state apparatuses (RSAs), which maintain power through physical force or the threat of force; and the ideological state apparatuses (ISAs), which use beliefs and ideas as a means of control. Education is an essential ISA that reproduces and legitimises class inequality by ensuring the working class is in a state of false class consciousness.

Sam Bowles and Herb Gintis argue that education casts a 'long shadow of work', meaning there are close parallels between work and school. School mirrors or corresponds with the workplace as they both involve reward, punishment, uniform, and hierarchy. The correspondence principle operates through the hidden curriculum; Lessons on punctuality and behaviour are not formally taught to pupils, but pupils eventually internalise and accept them. This is essential because capitalism requires obedience and workers-compliance. (See Marxist Theories of Education for a more in-depth understanding of these theories and concepts.)

Feminist theories of education

Feminist theories emphasise the exploitation and marginalisation of women and girls. Feminists argue that education is an agent of secondary socialisation that enforces patriarchy and the subjugation of women and girls.

Liberal feminists celebrate the advancement of girls' education and highlight progress that has been made in the attainment gap between girls and boys, and education today is used to promote gender equality.

Radical feminists, on the other hand, highlight the gender inequalities that still exist in society and education. Subjects are still gendered, and the curriculum transmits patriarchal norms and values. Girls in schools are subjected to gendered violence while the media creates moral panic about the underachievement of boys. The focus on the underachievement of boys is a distraction and reflects the domination exercised by boys and men.

Marxist and socialist feminists argue that through the hidden curriculum, pupils are taught capitalist patriarchal values, and to accept their subjugation. Boys are taught to dominate and exploit girls.

Feminists agree that current sociological research and theories are 'malestream', meaning most people are preoccupied with understanding and explaining things through boys and men's experiences. They focus heavily on boys and marginalise and devalue the experiences of girls in the education system.

Neoliberal and new right theories of education

Neoliberalism is a term used to describe a set of economic and social practices, policies, and processes that work to expand free-market capitalism. Neoliberals argue that marketing educationcreates competition which helps improve schools. Neoliberals advocate for restricting state involvement in the lives of citizens and believe the state should not be responsible for providing education.

Proponents of the new right are conservatives who have adopted neoliberal ideologies. They also believe that education should reflect the market and the state should not provide education for every child, simply because it cannot do so. It argues that the state cannot offer everyone adequate education, meaning that children from working-class families get left behind. Marketing education offers working-class families opportunities that the current system cannot provide. It also makes schools accountable to parents who are seen as consumers. It argues that state involvement stunts innovation, making us unprepared for the global market.

Marketing education raises standards, which improves attainment and fosters social and cultural innovation as schools and educational institutions are constantly responding to the market. This also helps create a competent workforce and leads to greater diversity.

Postmodernist theories of education

'Postmodernists', as they are sometimes called, seek to move beyond functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist paradigms of understanding social interactions. They want to investigate patterns, events, and institutions. Postmodernism is a philosophical movement that arose in the 20th century as a response to modernity. It challenges the ideas and values of modernism which was characterised by individualism, industrialisation, and scientific thought.

Postmodernists argue that we have moved from modernism to postmodernism. Society is now a lot more diverse, as well as being far more consumerist, which means that people now have more choice. In the context of education, there has been a shift. Education was once controlled centrally by the state but has now become marketised.

Marketisation has turned schools into businesses, but it has also forced teachers to 'reskill'. Teachers are now expected to cater for a diverse student population who have different learning styles, and the national curriculum no longer only centres on British values and industrial needs; it prepares pupils to survive in a globalised world.

Postmodernist theories of education track the advancement and changes of the education system throughout history and evaluate how education has adapted to respond to the needs of society and the economy.

The 1944 tripartite education system

The debate surrounding the future of education was widespread and pervasive after the end of the Second World War. In order for all children to be able to fulfil their potential through education, the UK government passed the 1944 Education Act. This involved splitting education in England and Wales into three distinct stages:

• Primary education (ages 5 to 11)
• Secondary education (ages 11 to 15)
• Further/higher education

The most significant changes to education brought about by the introduction of the tripartite system were for secondary school-goers. Namely, the implementation of the 11+ test made it so that children could be allocated to one of three types of schools for their secondary education (hence this system being called the tripartite system). The three types of schools were:

• Grammar schools, meant for students with high academic achievements.

• Technical schools, for students with high aptitude in technical and vocational learning.

• Secondary modern schools, for students with more practical skills, who would only receive a very basic academic education.

The comprehensive education system

The comprehensive system emerged from the social democratic belief that everybody should have the same opportunities for success. As a direct answer to the inequalities of the tripartite system, comprehensive schools brought all students into a single type of school without the barrier of entrance or 11+ exams.

Education System - Key takeaways

• Education has many functions. Most theories agree that education is an agent of secondary socialisation transmitting values and norms.
• Functionalists view education as an important component in role allocation or social placement.
• Marxists and socialists believe education produces and reproduces class inequalities.
• Feminists believe education upholds the patriarchy and teaches girls to be subservient to boys.
• Postmodernists view functionalist, Marxist, feminist, and neoliberal theories as outdated. They seek to understand the role and functions of education in a postmodern society.

Frequently Asked Questions about Education System

The education system is an agent of secondary socialisation used to transmit the norms and values of society, and to prepare pupils to live in society. 

Education serves many functions including; socialisation, social placement, social and cultural innovation, creating a workforce, creating social solidarity, and producing ideologies. 

Education in the 21st century exists to serve the needs of the people. Parents as consumers are given a choice about how and where they want their children educated.

In sociology, the term 'function of education' refers to the purpose that the education system supposedly does (or at least should) fulfil. 

Different sociologists will offer different purposes that the education system fulfils. For instance, functionalists believe that the main purpose of education is 'role allocation', whereby school-goers learn the future roles that they will carry out for the functioning of society. On the other hand, Marxists argue that the purpose of education is to perpetuate the capitalist system and existing class inequalities. 

Final Education System Quiz

Question

What is the sociology of education?

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Answer

The Sociology of Education is the study of sociology within the context of education. It looks at how educational institutions such as schools affect the outcomes of pupils, and how it influences society. 

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Why do functionalists believe inequality is necessary?

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Functionalists argue that education is a meritocratic system, meaning everybody is judged fairly without any bias. As a result, there are people who are judged to be less qualified for top positions in society, from which inequalities arise. This is always fair and just; if there were no inequalities, we wouldn’t have a meritocratic system. Inequalities maintain and ensure education remains meritocratic.

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Question

What do Sam Bowles and Herb Gintis mean by ‘education casts a long shadow over work?’

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The phrase ‘education casts a long shadow of work’ refers to the fact that schools mirror the workplace. The rules pupils have to abide by, the structures put in place in schools, and those who make the rules, are similar to those found in the workplace. 

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Question

Why do radical feminists refer to the underachievement of boys as a moral panic?

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Radical Feminists believe the underachievement of boys is used to distract people from sexism in education and reaffirm that society views boys as more important than girls.

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Why are Neoliberals and the New Right in favour of the marketisation of education?

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Neoliberals and the New Right favour the marketisation of education because it fosters social and cultural innovation, raises educational standards, and creates a workforce ready for the market. 

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Give two reasons why postmodernists believe education has moved away from modernity.

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Postmodernists point to the fact that society is a lot more diverse than it used to be, and that most people are more concerned with consumerism than education. Parents are treated as consumers and are able to choose how and where they want their children to be educated, and pupils are offered different ways to learn. 

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Question

 What are the manifest functions of education?                

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 Change and innovation, socialisation, social control, the transmission of culture, and role allocation are all manifest functions of education. 

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Name some examples of the latent functions of education.

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• Establishing social networks
• Engaging in group work
• Creating a generational gap
• Restricting activities 

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Finish the sentence: Latent functions are policies, processes, social patterns, and actions that schools and educational institutions put in place that are not always obvious. Because of this, they might result in....

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Unintended but not always unanticipated consequences.  

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Why is education considered an agent of social control? 

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 Schools and other educational institutions are given the responsibility of teaching obedience, perseverance, punctuality, and discipline, so pupils become compliant members of society.

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What is an example of social solidarity?

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Fill in the blanks: Postmodernists also believe the Durkheimian theory is ____. Durkheim wrote that when there was a 'Fordist' economy, ____ skills were needed to sustain economic growth. Today's society is a lot more advanced, and the economy needs workers with ____ skills.

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Outdated, specialist, flexible.

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Give one example of particularistic standards.

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 Parents donating money to universities to guarantee their child’s place is an example of particularistic standards.

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 Why do Davis and Moore argue that inequality is necessary? 

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Davis and Moore suggest that inequalities motivate people to work harder, and therefore to improve.

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What is one criticism of meritocracy? 

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Some sociologists call meritocracy a myth because it blames marginalised people for systematic failures and discrimination.

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Value consensus is a shared set of norms and values which people agree on and commit to.

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What is the neoliberal subject?

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The neoliberal subject is someone who embraces the idea that we are all in competition with one another. They see competition as beneficial to the survival and advancement of society, and themselves. 

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How do neoliberals feel about state intervention in education?  

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Neoliberals believe that the state restricts individual freedoms by regulating the market. The state should not be able to dictate how individuals dispose of their own property. Some neoliberals believe the state should not provide education as state education fails many low-income and working-class pupils.

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According to neoliberals, what is the purpose of education?  

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Neoliberals believe the purpose of education is to prepare pupils to compete in the global marketplace.

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Which one of these policies was not introduced by the Education Act of 1988? 

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Name a similarity between the New Right and functionalists.

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Like functionalists, the new right believes every functioning society should have a  value consensus as it instils a sense of national identity, which is valuable in the global marketplace.

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How does parental choice play an important role in the marketisation of education?

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Parental choice forces schools to raise their standards to attract parents. 

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Why were Chubb and Moe in favour of a voucher scheme that would enable parents to pay for private schools?

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Chubb and Moe believed that state education had failed to prepare pupils from low-income families for skills needed in the job market. A voucher scheme would give low-income families greater choice and force schools to raise their standards. 

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Why do neoliberals favour a national curriculum?    

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 National curriculums allow schools to assess pupils using the same criteria, this makes it easier for them to be sorted into their job and social roles. These roles include: worker, student, mother, father, and the stereotypical benefit “scrounger”. 

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What is 'false consciousness'? 

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False consciousness describes the way in which people are misled by the ruling capitalist class into thinking that they are not oppressed. 

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According to Marxists, what is the education system based on?

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The education system is based on exploitation and oppression.

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According to Althusser, how does the ruling capitalist class ensure the working-class are in a state of false consciousness?

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By utilising both the repressive state apparatus and ideological state apparatus to maintain the dominant ideology of the capitalist ruling class.

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What was McDonald’s (1980) criticism of Althusser’s theory? 

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Mcdonald believed Althusser’s theory ignored the role of gender. 

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According to Bowles and Gintis, who does the education system serve?  

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The education system serves the interests of the capitalist ruling class. 

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How does school prepare pupils for the workforce?

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 Schools prepare pupils for the workforce by socialising them to become compliant workers. An example of this is through the requirement of uniforms, rewarding obedience and punishing disobedience.

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 What is the 'hidden curriculum'?

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The hidden curriculum refers to things education teaches us that are not part of the formal curriculum, such as punctuality and individualism.

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How does the myth of meritocracy help keep the working classes in a state of false consciousness?

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 It teaches pupils to internalise their class position and accept inequality and their oppression as legitimate. 

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Why might people say Bowles and Gintis' theories are outdated?

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 Society is a lot more child-centred nowadays, and reflects the various needs of different types of children in society. 

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What do feminists mean when they say sociological theories are malestream?

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Sociological theories, largely through history and dynamics across the globe, are mostly concerned with understanding/explaining from the male perspective. 

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Malestream is the preoccupation with understanding and explaining things through the experiences of men.

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How does education uphold white supremacy? 

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Education upholds white supremacy by teaching students eurocentric and white-washed histories. 

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List two general feminist perceptions of education.

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• Education transmits patriarchal norms and values and gender scripts.
• Education legitimises patriarchy and teaches women and girls to accept their position in society.

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What is liberal feminism generally based on?

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Liberal feminism is based on individual autonomy (or personal autonomy).

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Why do Liberal feminists think it is important to acknowledge the attainment gap between boys and girls?

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Girls now outperform boys in education, this, for Liberal feminists, shows the advancement towards gender equality. 

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 Summarise the radical feminist's perspective on education.

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Radical feminists believe the role of education is to reinforce patriarchal ideology and normalise the oppression of women and girls.

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What do radical feminists call the concerns over male underachievement in education and why?

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Radical feminists call it moral panic because boys still dominate STEM subjects and the curriculum is centred on men and their achievements.

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Why is radical feminism referred to as essentialist?

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Because they believe that it is in men’s nature to exploit and oppress women.

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Why are middle-class women considered class traitors?

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Middle-class women are educated to uphold and legitimise the patriarchy, and exploit working-class women.

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According to Marxist and socialist feminists, how does the patriarchy harm boys?

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Education reinforces hegemonic masculinity by imposing masculine roles on male pupils. Boys who display feminine characteristics are bullied. 

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Postmodernism is a philosophical movement that arose in the 20th century as a response to modernity. Postmodernists seek to move beyond functionalist, conflict, and symbolic interactionist paradigms of understanding social interactions. They want to investigate patterns, events, and institutions.

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Should teachers represent their personal values in the classroom, according to postmodernists?

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Postmodernists believe that teachers can and should represent their own personal values in the classroom, thus directing and inspiring students to create their own individual values. The most important values in postmodernism are diversity, tolerance, freedom, creativity and emotions. 

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What do postmodernists think about the universalisation of the education system?

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Postmodernists object to the universalisation of the education system. They believe that parents and pupils should have the freedom to choose the type of educational institute and learning method that best suits their personality and academic development. 

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What did postmodernists think about creativity in education?

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Postmodernists support the nurturing of creativity, which they see the modernist education system to be unfit for. Sir Ken Robinson and Suli-Breaks were especially supportive of nurturing human creativity in all levels of school. Postmodernism believes that the self is a social construct and education is there to help individuals create their identities through the exploration of their interests and creativity, rather than discover an innate identity. 

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What did Sue Palmer find in terms of testing in education?

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Sue Palmer pointed out that modernist curriculum and teaching methods focus on tests which have made schools and learning a negative experience for students, who sometimes find it unbearably stressful.

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Question

What were the four main educational changes in the age of postmodernity?

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Answer

• Diversity and marketisation made schools businesses and the parents and pupils customers with freedom of choice.
• Education is much more individualised.
• Fragmentation has increased in education.
• Education has become hyperreal.

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