_________ issues involve collecting, storing, and disseminating information about individuals.

the principles of right and wrong that individuals use to make choices that guide their behavior

• utilitarian approach
  
• rights approach
• fairness approach
  
• common good approach

• states that an ethical action is the one that provides the most good or does the least harm
• The ethical corporate action would be the one that produces the greatest good and does the least harm for all affected parties—customers, employees, shareholders, the community, and the environment

• maintains that an ethical action is the one that best protects and respects the moral rights of the affected parties.
  
• Moral rights can include the rights to make one's own choices about what kind of life to lead, to be told the truth, not to be injured, and to a degree of privacy
• An ethical organizational action would be one that protects and respects the moral rights of customers, employees, shareholders, business partners, and even competitors.

• posits that ethical actions treat all human beings equally, or, if unequally, then fairly, based on some defensible standard

• highlights the interlocking relationships that underlie all societies
  
• argues that respect and compassion for all others is the basis for ethical actions
• emphasizes the common conditions that are important to the welfare of everyone.
  

• combination of the four standards
• five steps:
1. recognize an ethical issue
2. get the facts
3. evaluate alternative actions
4. make a decision and test it
5. act and reflect on the outcome of your decision
   

recognize an ethical issue

• Could this decision or situation damage someone or some group?
• Does this decision involve a choice between a good and a bad alternative?
• Does this issue involve more than legal considerations?

• What are the relevant facts of the situation?
• Do I have sufficient information to make a decision?
• Which individuals and/or groups have an important stake in the outcome?
• Have I consulted all relevant persons and groups?

evaluate alternative actions

• Which option will produce the most good and do the least harm? (utilitarian approach)
• Which option best respects the rights of all stakeholders? (rights approach)
• Which option treats people equally or proportionately? (fairness approach)
• Which option best serves the community as a whole, and not just some members? (common good approach)

make a decision and test it

Considering all the approaches, which option best addresses the situation?

act and reflect on the outcome of your decision

• How can I implement my decision with the greatest care and attention to the concerns of all stakeholders?
• How did my decision turn out, and what did I learn from this specific situation?

a collection of principles intended to guide decision making by members of the organization

fundamental tenets of ethics

• responsibility
  
• accountability
• liability

tenet of ethics in which you accept the consequences of your decisions and actions

refers to determining who is responsible for actions that were taken

legal concept that gives individuals the right to recover the damages done to them by other individuals, organizations, or systems

if something is unethical is it illegal?

• not always
• ex: bank foreclosure on a home
  

Sarbanes-Oxley Act (2002)

• requires publicly held companies to implement financial controls and company executives to personally certify financial reports
• caused by cases of executive accounting fraud at Enron, WorldCom, and Tyco
  

ethical problems caused by IT advancements

• organizations' ability to store more info on individuals for longer periods of time
• organizations' ability to collect, integrate, and distribute enormous amounts of information on individuals, groups, and institutions

four general categories of ethical issues caused by the diversity and ever-expanding use of IT applications

• privacy
• accuracy
• property
• accessibility

involve collecting, storing, and disseminating information about individuals

involve the authenticity, fidelity, and correctness of information that is collected and processed

involve the ownership and value of information

revolve around who should have access to information and whether a fee should be paid for this access

examples of privacy issues

• What information about oneself should an individual be required to reveal to others?
• What kind of surveillance can an employer use on its employees?
• What types of personal information can people keep to themselves and not be forced to reveal to others?
• What information about individuals should be kept in databases, and how secure is the information there?

examples of accuracy issues

• Who is responsible for the authenticity, fidelity, and accuracy of the information collected?
• How can we ensure that the information will be processed properly and presented accurately to users?
• How can we ensure that errors in databases, data transmissions, and data processing are accidental and not intentional?
• Who is to be held accountable for errors in information, and how should the injured parties be compensated?

examples of property issues

• Who owns the information?
• What are the just and fair prices for its exchange?
• How should we handle software piracy (copying copyrighted software)?
• Under what circumstances can one use proprietary databases?
• Can corporate computers be used for private purposes?
• How should experts who contribute their knowledge to create expert systems be compensated?
• How should access to information channels be allocated?

examples of accessibility issues

• Who is allowed to access information?
• How much should companies charge for permitting access to information?
• How can access to computers be provided for employees with disabilities?
• Who will be provided with equipment needed for accessing information?
• What information does a person or an organization have a right to obtain, under what conditions, and with what safeguards?

the right to be left alone and to be free of unreasonable personal intrusions

the right to determine when, and to what extent, information about you can be gathered and/or communicated to others

court decisions on privacy

• The right of privacy is not absolute. Privacy must be balanced against the needs of society
• The public's right to know supersedes the individual's right of privacy

electronic profile of you and your habits

The process of forming a digital dossier

the process of companies purchasing digital dossiers from data aggregators in an effort to get to know their customers better

tracking people's activities with the aid of information technology

types of electronic surveillance

• digital sensors
• cell phone usage/GPS
• geotagging
• facial-recognition software
• photo tagging
• URL filtering
  

institutions that use personal information databases

• credit-reporting agencies
• banks and financial institutions
• cable TV, telephone, and utilities companies
• employers
• mortgage companies
• hospitals
• schools and universities
• retail establishments
• government agencies
• Internal Revenue Service
• your state
• your municipality

major concerns related to personal information in databases

• Do you know where the records are?
• Are the records accurate?
• Can you change inaccurate data?
• How long will it take to make a change?
• Under what circumstances will personal data be released?
• How are the data used?
• To whom are the data given or sold?
• How secure are the data against access by unauthorized people?

an informal, personal journal that is frequently updated and is intended for general public reading

an organization's guidelines for protecting the privacy of its customers, clients, and employees

opt-out model of informed consent

permits the company to collect personal information until the customer specifically requests that the data not be collected

opt-in model of informed consent

prohibits an organization from collecting any personal information unless the customer specifically authorizes it

platform for privacy preferences (P3P)

• protocol that automatically communicates privacy policies between an electronic commerce Web site and visitors to that site
• enables visitors to determine the types of personal data that can be extracted by the sites they visit
• allows visitors to compare a site's privacy policy to the visitors' preferences or to other standards

privacy policy guidelines for data collection

• Data should be collected on individuals only for the purpose of accomplishing a legitimate business objective.
• Data should be adequate, relevant, and not excessive in relation to the business objective.
• Individuals must give their consent before data pertaining to them can be gathered. Such consent may be implied from the individual's actions (e.g., applications for credit, insurance, or employment)

privacy policy guidelines for data accuracy

• Sensitive data gathered on individuals should be verified before they are entered into the database.
• Data should be kept current, where and when necessary.
• The file should be made available so that the individual can ensure that the data are correct.
• In any disagreement about the accuracy of the data, the individual's version should be noted and included with any disclosure of the file.

privacy policy guidelines for data confidentiality

• Computer security procedures should be implemented to ensure against unauthorized disclosure of data. These procedures should include physical, technical, and administrative security measures.
• Third parties should not be given access to data without the individual's knowledge or permission, except as required by law.
• Disclosures of data, other than the most routine, should be noted and maintained for as long as the data are maintained.
• Data should not be disclosed for reasons incompatible with the business objective for which they are collected.

companies providing help in maintaining your privacy

• snapchat
• wickr
• burn note
• tigertext
• facebook poke
• reputation
• silent circle
  

The absence of consistent or uniform standards for privacy and security obstructs the flow of information among countries

• Data aggregators, digital dossiers, and profiling
• Electronic Surveillance
• Personal Information in Databases
• Information on Internet Bulletin Boards, Newsgroups, and Social Networking Sites

What type of rules refer to issues of fairness harm and individual rights?

Which ethical action is the one that best respects and protects the moral rights of everyone affected by the action?

Which of the following approaches to ethics says that ethical action is the one that provides the most good or does the least harm?

Is a legal concept that gives individuals the right to recover the damages done to them by other individuals organizations or systems?