TermDefinition personality a dynamic concept describing the growth and development of a person’s whole psychological system heredity Factors determined at conception; one’s biological, physiological, and inherent psychological makeup personality traits Enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s behavior Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) A personality test that taps four characteristics and classifies people into 1 of 16 personality types 4 MBTI characteristics Extraverted vs. Introverted Sensing vs. Intuitive Thinking vs Feeling Judging vs Perceiving extraverted are outgoing, sociable, and assertive; MBTI Characteristic introverted are quiet and shy; MBTI characteristic sensing are practical and prefer routine and order; MBTI characteristic intuitive rely on unconscious processes and look at the “big picture"; MBTI characteristic thinking use reason and logic to handle problems; MBTI characteristic feeling rely on their personal values and emotions; MBTI characteristic judging want control and prefer their world to be ordered and structured; MBTI characteristic perceiving are flexible and spontaneous; MBTI characteristic Big Five Personality Model A personality assessment model that taps five basic dimensions extraversion captures our comfort level with relationships; A personality dimension describing someone who is sociable, gregarious, and assertive; Big Five characteristic agreeableness refers to an individual’s propensity to defer to others; A personality dimension that describes someone who is good natured, cooperative, and trusting; Big Five characteristic conscientiousness a measure of reliability; A personality dimension that describes someone who is responsible, dependable, persistent, and organized; Big Five characteristic emotional stability a person’s ability to withstand stress; A personality dimension that characterizes someone as calm, self-confident, secure (positive) versus nervous, depressed, and insecure (negative); Big Five characteristic openness to experience range of interests and fascination with novelty; A personality dimension that characterizes someone in terms of imagination, sensitivity, and curiosity; Big Five characteristic neuroticism converse of emotional stability core self-evaluation Bottom-line conclusions individuals have about their capabilities, competence, and worth as a person Machiavellianism The degree to which an individual is pragmatic, maintains emotional distance, and believes that ends can justify means narcissism The tendency to be arrogant, have a grandiose sense of self-importance, require excessive admiration, and have a sense of entitlement self-monitoring A personality trait that measures an individual’s ability to adjust his or her behavior to external, situational factors risk taking willingness to take chances, a quality that affects how much time and information they need to make a decision proactive personality People who identify opportunities, show initiative, take action, and persevere until meaningful change occurs other-orientation people who naturally seem to think about other people a lot, being concerned about their well-being and feelings values Basic convictions that a specific mode of conduct or end-state of existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end-state of existence value system A hierarchy based on a ranking of an individual’s values in terms of their intensity terminal values Desirable end-states of existence; the goals a person would like to achieve during his or her lifetime instrumental values Preferable modes of behavior or means of achieving one's terminal values Big Five characteristics extraversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, openness to experience person-job fit A theory that identifies six personality types and proposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover; John Holland's theory Holland's six personality types realistic, investigative, social, conventional, enterprising, artistic; Holland personality type realistic Shy, genuine, persistent, stable, conforming, practical; Holland personality type investigative Analytical, original, curious, independent; Holland personality type social Sociable, friendly, cooperative, understanding; Holland personality type conventional Conforming, efficient, practical, unimaginative, inflexible; Holland personality type enterprising Self-confident, ambitious, energetic, domineering; Holland personality type artistic Imaginative, disorderly, idealistic, emotional, impractical; Holland personality type person-organization fit argues that people are attracted to and selected by organizations that match their values, and they leave organizations that are not compatible with their personalities Hofstede's five value dimensions of national culture power distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term versus short-term orientation power distance A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society accepts that power in institutions and organizations is distributed unequally individualism A national culture attribute that describes the degree to which people prefer to act as individuals rather than as members of groups collectivism A national culture attribute that describes a tight social framework in which people expect others in groups of which they are a part to look after them and protect them masculinity A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which the culture favors traditional masculine work roles of achievement, power, and control. Societal values are characterized by assertiveness and materialism femininity A national culture attribute that indicates little differentiation between male and female roles; a high rating indicates that women are treated as the equals of men in all aspects of the society uncertainty avoidance A national culture attribute that describes the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries to avoid them long-term orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the future, thrift, and persistence short-term orientation A national culture attribute that emphasizes the past and present, respect for tradition, and fulfillment of social obligations Ranked #1 Individualism United States Ranked #1 Power Distance Malaysia Ranked #1 Masulinity Japan Ranked #1 Uncertainty Avoidance Greece Ranked #2 Long-Term Orientation Hong Kong Ranked lowest Power Distance Austria Ranked lowest Individualism Guatemala Ranked lowest Masculinity Sweden Ranked lowest Uncertainty Avoidance Singapore Ranked lowest Long-term Orientation West Africa perception A process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment factors that influence perception perceiver, situation, target attribution theory An attempt to determine whether an individual's behavior is internally or externally caused attribution factors distinctiveness, consensus, consistency internally under the personal control of the individual externally what the situation forced the individual to do distinctiveness whether an individual displays different behaviors in different situations; attribution theory factor consensus whether everyone who faces a similar situation responds in the same way; attribution theory factor consistency whether the action is consistent with a person's actions; attribution theory factor fundamental attribution error The tendency to underestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence of internal factors when making judgments about the behavior of others self-serving bias The tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal factors and put the blame for failures on external factors selective perception The tendency to selectively interpret what one sees on the basis of one's interests, background, experience, and attitudes halo effect The tendency to draw a general impression about an individual on the basis of a single characteristic contrast effect Evaluation of a person's characteristics that is affected by comparisons with other people recently encountered who rank higher or lower on the same characteristics stereotyping Judging someone on the basis of one's perception of the group to which that person belongs self-fulfilling prophecy A situation in which a person inaccurately perceives a second person, and the resulting expectations cause the second person to behave in ways consistent with the original perception decisions choices from among two or more alternatives problem A discrepancy between the current state of affairs and some desired state rational Characterized by making consistent, value-maximizing choices within specified constraints rational decision-making model A decision-making model that describes how individuals should behave in order to maximize some outcome rational decision-making model steps 1. Define the problem 2. Identify the decision criteria 3. Allocate the weights to the criteria 4. Develop the alternatives 5. Evaluate the alternatives 6. Select the best alternative bounded rationality A process of making decisions by constructing simplified models that extract the essential features from problems without capturing all their complexity intuitive decision making An unconscious process created out of distilled experience overconfidence bias people tend to be too optimistic about being correct anchoring bias A tendency to fixate on initial information, from which one then fails to adequately adjust for subsequent information confirmation bias The tendency to seek out information that reaffirms past choices and to discount information that contradicts past judgements availability bias The tendency for people to base their judgements on information that is readily available to them escalation of commitment An increased commitment to a previous decision in spite of negative information randomness error The tendency of individuals to believe that they can predict the outcome of random events risk aversion The tendency to prefer a sure gain of a moderate amount over a riskier outcome might have a higher expected payoff hindsight bias The tendency to believe falsely, after an outcome of an event is actually known, that one would have accurately predicted that outcome utilitarianism A system in which decision are made to provide the greatest good for the greatest number whistle-blowers Individuals who report unethical practices by their employer to outsiders creativity The ability to produce novel and useful ideas three-component model of creativity The proposition that individual creativity requires expertise, creative thinking skills, and intrinsic task motivation intrinsic task motivation The desire to work on something because it's interesting, involving, exciting, satisfying, or personally challenging motivation The processes that account for an individual's intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal motivation intensity how hard a person tries to reach a goal motivation direction a person's quality of effort toward a goal motivation persistence how long a person can maintain effort to reach a goal Hierarchy of Needs Theory Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of five needs—physiological, safety, social, esteem, and self-actualization—in which, as each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant physiological includes hunger, thirst, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs; hierarchy of needs safety security and protection from physical and emotional harm; hierarchy of needs social affection, belongingness, acceptance, and friendship; hierarchy of needs esteem internal factors such as self-respect, autonomy, and achievement, and external factors such as status, recognition, and attention; hierarchy of needs self-actualization drive to become what we are capable of becoming; includes growth, achieving our potential, and self-fulfillement; hierarchy of needs lower-order needs needs satisfied predominantly externally; includes physiological and safety needs; hierarchy of needs higher-order needs satisfied internally; includes social, esteem, and self-actualization; hierarchy of needs Theory X and Theory Y Douglas McGregor's two distinct views of human being: the negative and positive Theory X the assumption that employees dislike work, are lazy, dislike responsibility, and must be coerced to perform Theory Y the assumption that employees like work, are creative, seek responsibility, and can exercise self-direction two-factor theory A theory that relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and associates extrinsic factors with dissatisfaction; also called motivation-hygiene theory hygiene factors Factors—such as company policy and administration, supervision, and salary—that, when adequate in a job, placate workers. When these factors are adequate, people will not be dissatisfied McLellan's Theory of Needs a theory that states achievement, power, and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation need for achievement the drive to excel, to achieve in relationship to a set of standards, and to strive to succeed; McLellan's Theory of Needs need for power the need to make others behave in a way in which they would not have behaved otherwise; McLellan's Theory of Needs need for affiliation the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships; McLellan's Theory of Needs Self-Determination Theory A theory of motivation that is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation; contemporary theories cognitive evaluation theory A version of self-determination theory which holds that allocating extrinsic rewards for behavior that had been previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling self-concordance the degree to which peoples' reasons for pursuing goals are consistent with their interest and core values; self-determination theory Job Engagement the investment of an employee's physical, cognitive, and emotional energies into job performance; contemporary theories Goal-Setting Theory a theory that says that specific and difficult goals, with feedback, lead to higher performance; contemporary theories of motivation Early Theories of Motivation -Hierarchy of Needs Theory -Theory X and Theory Y -Two Factor Theory - McLellan's Theory of Needs Contemporary Theories of Motivation -Self-Determination Theory -Job Engagement -Goal-Setting Theory -Self-Efficacy Theory -Reinforcement Theory -Equity Theory/Organizational Justice -Expectancy Theory management by objective (MBO) a program that encompasses specific goals, participatively set, for an explicit time period, with feedback on goal progress; Goal-Setting Theory Self-Efficacy Theory An individual's belief that he or she is capable of performing a task; Contemporary Theories of Motivation Reinforcement Theory a theory that says that behavior is a function of its consequences; Contemporary Theories of Motivation Equity Theory A theory that says that individuals compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate any inequalities; Contemporary Theories of Motivation Organizational Justice an overall perception of what is fair in the workplace, composed of distributive, procedural, and interactional justice; Contemporary Theories of Motivation Expectancy Theory a theory that says that the strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength our expectation of a given outcome and its attractiveness; Contemporary Theories of Motivation
